press, coptic. [This entry consists of two articles, one on Major Organs, the other on Minor Organs.] Major Organs Copts began publishing religious, intellectual, and political periodicals in the second half of the nineteenth century. Some journals and newspapers were written to appeal to Muslims as well as Christians, while others focused more narrowly on communal and church affairs. The heyday of such publications was the seventy-five years between the founding of the newspaper al-Watan in 1877 and the close of the constitutional monarchy in 1952. The number of Coptic periodicals published during this period gives evidence not only of a lively and vigorous communal life but also of a substantial literate public for so small a community. The freedom that Coptic journalists felt in voicing views that many Muslims found highly controversial is one example of the considerable political tolerance of this era.
Coptic periodicals frequently defended their perception of Coptic interests in society at large. Their attempts to encourage communal cohesiveness, particularly in the face of perceived Muslim or government depredations, were in contrast to the extreme division of opinion on internal church matters, a favorite subject of all periodicals that counted their readership primarily among Copts. All were concerned with national issues. Two, al-Watan and Misr, were daily newspapers, while a third, al-Manarah al-Misriyyah, was a journal that sometimes appeared monthly and sometimes weekly. Al-Watan was founded by Mikha’il ‘Abd al-Sayyid in 1877 as a forum for national issues. According to the Egyptian historian ‘Abdal-Rahman Al-Rafi‘i (1889-1966), the paper adopted a patriotic policy with a nonpartisan tone. In 1900, after a period of suspension, the paper was published under the editorship of Jindi Ibrahim. Al-Watan was again sold in 1924, and its new proprietor made the newspaper into an advocate of church reform.
The newspaper was a strong defender of Coptic interests in the years before World War I, when ethnic tensions ran high. It was warned on more than one occasion by the government for inciting religious fanaticism. Al-Watan supported the British Occupation and condemned the 1919 revolution and Sa‘d Zaghlul. In time, perhaps realizing how little support there was for the occupation, it came to support the cause of independence. It became a newspaper more concerned with national than communal affairs but retained a conservative color. It opposed the Zaghlulists and promoted cooperation with the British as the quickest route to independence. It also opposed the boycott of the Milner mission. The newspaper had a tendency to support whatever ministry was in power and was fervently loyal to the throne, two sensible positions for a minority paper. With al-Watan's sale, the newspaper began supporting the Wafd party, but its conversion in 1924 came too late. The Wafd party had no real need to support two Coptic newspapers, and Misr had a prior and stronger claim to a nationalist readership. Al-Watan's error at this point may have been to look too much like its rival, Misr, with similar views on church and national matters. It began to appear sporadically in 1927 and disappeared in 1930.
Misr was the preeminent Coptic organ in the period of the constitutional monarchy. Throughout its life, it claimed to speak for the Copts, although it also served at times as a party newspaper and had Muslim and Coptic journalists and readers. The newspaper was founded in 1895 by Tadrus Shinudah al-Manqabadi, an Orthodox Copt. The newspaper presented reformist views and opposed the conservative and proclerical stance of al-Watan.
Misr paid close attention to communal matters and was steadfast in its anticlerical views. It supported any proposal that would increase lay participation in church affairs. Misr described its role as that of the watchdog of the community. The newspaper was very influential in promoting church reform, and its support for the community council probably afforded that body some protection from government interference.
Misr began publication as a staunch defender of the British Occupation. It opposed the pan-Islamic nationalism of mustafa kamil and defended the Coptic community against the attacks of al-Liwa’ and al-Mu’ayyad in 1908-1909. Misr also supported the coptic congress of asyut in 1911. It was in this troubled period a stronger advocate of Coptic rights than at any other time until the late 1940s.
As al-Manqabadi noted, there was no surer way to financial ruin in Egypt than to start a newspaper. In 1917, Misr disappeared for a short period owing to the owner's financial troubles. When it reappeared in 1918, it did so as a convert to the nationalist cause. By the time of the 1919 revolution, Misr was supporting the Wafd party and was vehemently anti-British. It even served for a short period as the chief Zaghlulist organ. For the most part, the newspaper continued to back the Wafd, although its enthusiasm for the party sometimes wavered. Misr was also a very strong supporter of the Wafd during the controversial 1938 election, but thereafter it was very subdued in its criticism of the victorious Mahmud government. After the Coptic politician makram ebeid left the Wafd in the 1940s, Misr's support for the party ended. Following World War II, Misr assumed a more communal character and largely withdrew from the national political arena. It was clear in expressing its disappointment in the political system. Under salamah musa, the newspaper intensified its defense of Coptic interests. Accusing the newspaper of religious fanaticism, the Sidqi government ceased publishing announcements in its pages.
Al-Manarah al-Misriyyah was founded in 1928 by the radical priest and famous orator, the qummus Murqus Malati sarjiyus. Sarjiyus was a popular figure among Muslims and Copts and was an influential advocate of church reform. For most of his working life, he was the bane of the patriarchate. He expressed his views with so little tact in his journal that he was excommunicated twice. When his friend Anba macarius iii was elected patriarch on a reform platform in 1944, Sarjiyus found himself, for the first time, backing the patriarchate. He became the patriarch's wakil (vicar guard) and surprisingly, in a complete reversal, continued to support him, even when the latter failed to enact his promised reforms. Sarjiyus also served as wakil for Macarius' successor, yusab ii. The latter also reneged on promises of reform and plunged the community into considerable chaos. By 1952, Sarjiyus was attacking the patriarch, and was excommunicated as a result of these attacks, but was later reinstated.
Al-Manarah was primarily interested in internal matters, but it did deal with the wider area of Coptic-Muslim relations. It was not affiliated with any party, but did oppose the Wafd owing to its proprietor's break with that party in the 1920s. Sarjiyus was inclined to address all subjects only in terms of how they would affect the Coptic community. Al-Manarah was diligent in reporting incidents of violence against Copts and complained about government interference in community affairs. The journal was more temperate when Sarjiyus served as wakil.
The weekly newspaper Watani is the most important Coptic organ to appear in the post-1952 period. In early 1958, a group of Coptic notables decided that the community needed a vehicle to express its views and interests. After acquiring a government permit, the newspaper began to appear under the editorship of ‘Aziz Mirza, a former chief editor of al-Ahram. The newspaper encountered serious financial difficulties, owing principally to the lack of advertising brought about by the 1961 nationalizations, but it has continued to publish. Watani reports on Orthodox church concerns and also discusses the affairs of other Egyptian Christian sects. The newspaper also publishes articles on matters of general national concern.
In 1981, Watani was suspended for publishing articles that the government declared were inflammatory. These articles dealt with the Christian-Muslim violence that broke out in the district of al-Zawiyah al-Hamra’. Watani protested the suspension and took its case to court. In June 1983, the court upheld Watani's position. Nonetheless, the suspension continued until December 1984. The newspaper continues to write on matters of specific concern to the Coptic community and consciously tries to promote good relations between Muslims and Copts.