Dayr Al-Suryan: 2023 update of new discoveries

Claremont Coptic Encyclopedia 15 August 2023

dayr al-suryan: 2023 update of new discoveries

Karel C. Innemée Keywords: Archaeology, Architecture, Coptic Art, Coptic Churches, Coptic Iconography, Coptic Language, Coptic Monasteries, Scetis, Syriac language, Wādī al-Natrūn 1. Introduction 1.1 History of the monastery 1.2. History of the church building 1.2.1. The seventh century 1.2.2. The tenth century 1.2.3. The thirteenth to eighteenth centuries 2. The Mural Paintings on Layer 1 3. Paintings on Layer 2 3.1. Dado 3.2. Crosses and peacocks 3.3. The half-domes 3.3.1. The Annunciation 3.3.2. The Epiphany 3.3.3. The earlier apse 3.3.4. The southern half-dome 3.4. Other paintings in the khurus 3.4.1. Virgin Galaktotrophousa 3.4.2. Sergius and Bacchus 3.4.3. Monks on half-columns 3.4.3.1. Anonymous monk 3.4.3.2. Abba Apollo 3.4.4. Three mounted saints 3.4.5. Holy doctor (Saint Colluthos?) 3.4.6. Saints Cosmas and Damian 3.4.7. Saint James Minor and another saint adoring the Cross 3.4.8. Saint Luke and Saint Barnabas 3.4.9. Standing saint in ecclesiastical dress 3.4.10. Saint Pisentius and Saint Apakir 3.5. Paintings in the nave 3.5.1. Paintings on the eastern wall of the nave 3.5.2. The western wall 3.5.3. The mortuary chapel of Maqari 3.5.3.1. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob 3.5.3.2. Saint Macarius the Egyptian and the cherub 3.5.3.3. Two saints on horseback 3.5.3.4. Double composition on the eastern wall 3.5.4. Virgin Galaktotrophousa 3.5.5. Crosses in blocked windows 3.5.6. Informal decorations © Claremont Graduate University 1 K.

Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 4. Paintings on Layer 3 4.1. The khurus 4.1.1. Paintings in the dome 4.1.1.1. Lower zone: Minor prophets 4.1.1.2. Narrative scenes 4.1.2. The square zone under the dome 4.1.2.1. Abgar and Constantine 4.1.2.2. Saint Philip and the chamberlain of the Candace 4.1.2.3. Saint Andrew and the dog-headed cannibals 4.1.2.4. Saint Thomas and King Gundaphoras 4.1.2.5. Saint Gregory the Illuminator 4.1.2.6. Crosses 4.1.2.7. Dormition, Assumption, and Glory of the Virgin 4.2. The sanctuary (haykal) 4.2.1. Paintings in the dome 4.2.1.1. Floral patterns 4.2.1.2 General observations 4.2.2. Paintings below the dome 4.3. Paintings in the nave 4.3.1. Paintings on the eastern wall 4.3.2. The Nativity 4.3.3. Unidentified scene (multiplication of bread?) 4.3.5. The Forty Martyrs of Sebaste 4.3.6. The niche of the relic shrine 5. Paintings on Layer 4 5.1. The semi-domes 5.1.1. The southern semi-dome 5.1.2. The western semi-dome 5.1.3. The northern semi-dome 5.2. Paintings in the nave 5.2.1. The eastern wall 5.2.1.1. Jacob of Saruj 5.2.1.2. The Archangel Michael, Dorotheus, and Theopiste 5.2.1.3. Military saint 5.2.1.4. Deesis 5.2.2. The western wall 5.2.3. The northern wall 5.2.4. The southern wall of the southern side-aisle 5.2.4.1. Monastic saints 5.2.4.2. Three mounted saints and a standing figure 5.2.4.3. Scenes from the Book of Daniel 5.2.5. The northern wall of the northern side-aisle 5.2.6.

The southern intrados of the second khurus 5.2.7. The northern intrados of the second khurus 5.2.8. Paintings on columns: Severus, Dioscorus, and an unknown figure © Claremont Graduate University 2 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 6. Inscriptions 6.1. Southern wall of the southern side-aisle 6.2. Eastern wall of the nave 6.3. Inscription of Mattay and Yaʿqub 7. The Chapel of the 49 Martyrs 8. Iconography, Painting Technique, and Authorship © Claremont Graduate University 3 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 1. Introduction This entry expands and updates the earlier cce entry entitled dayr al-suryan: new discoveries (Innemée 2016).

1.1. History of the monastery dayr al-suryan was founded by monks from the neighboring monastery dayr anba bishoi in the sixth century, when a dispute over the human nature of the body of Christ caused a split in the community of that monastery. Those who held the orthodox view that Christ had a human body, and that therefore the Virgin Mary was his mother in the physical sense, left and founded a new community at a close distance. To underline their theological conviction, this new monastery and its church were dedicated to the Holy Virgin. This Monastery of the Holy Virgin of Anba Bishoi later became known as the Monastery of the Syrians (Dayr al-Suryan), after a group of Syriac monks settled there. Until recently, this was believed to have happened after the monastery’s sale to a group of Syriac monks at the beginning of the eighth century, but now we know this sale never took place, and the first Syriac monks may have arrived around or shortly after the year 800.

Before 817, the monastery was attacked by Berbers and must have suffered considerable damage; with the support of the newly arrived Syrian monks, the monastery was restored and surrounded by a defensive wall. From the ninth century onward, the monastery was inhabited by a mixed population of Coptic and Syrian monks. During the ninth and tenth centuries an exceptionally rich library of Syriac (and later also of Arabic) manuscripts was collected in the monastery. Moses of Nisibis, an abbot of the monastery in the beginning of the tenth century, played an important role in these acquisitions. He ordered the construction of the church’s wooden doors with ivory inlay and was possibly one of the people who commissioned wall paintings in the church (see syrian influences on coptic art). During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the Syrian population of the monastery gradually died out, and Coptic monks remained as its inhabitants.

1.2. History of the church building The monastery was founded in the sixth century and one can hardly imagine that it did not have its own church. There are reasons to believe that an earlier church stood at the same site. Excavations in the church narthex have revealed remains of an older building and yielded large quantities of decorative stucco work and painted plaster.

1.2.1. The seventh century The church of the Holy Virgin must have been built in the middle of the seventh century (Grossmann 2002: 73). It was designed as a three-aisled basilica, built of irregular limestone blocks and mud mortar, with a wooden roof. It had an element that was new for its time: a khurus (from the Greek choros, which means choir). This is an area of the church functioning as a transition between the nave and the sanctuary (haykal). Another characteristic feature of the church is the fact that it had four semi-domes: an eastern apse, two semi-domes at the northern and southern ends of the khurus, and one at the western end of the nave. The three-aisled nave had a return aisle as part of the traditional Coptic church plan. The nave had two rows of five columns on the northern and southern sides, ending in an L-shaped corner pier with attached half-columns in the west, while there were two attached half-columns on the eastern wall separating the nave from the khurus (Fig. 1). These half-columns, © Claremont Graduate University 4 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 cm) in (scale 1 Fig.

© Claremont Graduate University 5 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 columns, and corner piers supported wooden architraves on which the clerestory zone was constructed. In this clerestory zone there were fourteen windows: six in each sidewall and two in the western wall. The sidewall windows were positioned over the bays. Between the windows and over the columns, consoles were located. These consoles were constructed of red brick, supported by wooden beams inserted into the wall. The consoles were doubtlessly meant to support the horizontal beams that were the basis of the roof construction. At ground floor level in the side-aisles, there were windows as well: seven in the southern wall and six in the northern wall. The church had two entrances: one in the west, and one in the northern wall in the third bay from the east. At the time the church was built it must have been a freestanding building. The monastery’s defensive perimeter wall that now stands directly against the church’s southern side and blocks its windows at ground floor level was probably not built before the ninth century, and only then did the windows in the southern aisle lose their function. The khurus, now relatively dark, must have been much lighter, with four open windows at ground floor level.

The southern windows were blocked by the construction of the perimeter wall, while the windows in the northern wall lost their function when the adjacent Chapel of the 49 Martyrs was built, probably during the tenth century. In contrast to the nave, the eastern part of the church was roofed in stone, with a triconch over the sanctuary and the northern and southern end of the khurus, and a central dome over the khurus. The endings of the khurus have a rectangular plan, and the semi-domes originally rested on a wooden construction in the corners. It is possible that the haykal had a similar construction for its apse. Two pastoforia flanked the haykal, were accessible from the khurus, and probably connected with the haykal.

No major modifications took place in the building until the early tenth century. Possibly around 800, the doorways from the khurus to the pastoforia were changed. In the original construction these doorways were low and acentric, the entrance to the northern pastoforion being to the far north, and that to the southern pastoforion to the far south of the wall. At some point, the doorways were moved to the center and made higher, with an arch. This modification may relate to a change in function. The northern pastoforion may have been turned into a sanctuary for newly arrived Syriac monks, which would require better accessibility and a more monumental entrance. The painting over the arch, in which Saint James, Brother of Jesus and author of the Syriac liturgy, is prominently depicted, may be taken as an indication of this change in function (Innemée 2004).

1.2.2. The tenth century In the tenth century, numerous changes and renovations were made to the building. Moses of Nisibis, abbot in the early tenth century, was the driving force behind these activities. The first step must have been the addition of painted decoration to the upper zones of the walls. In the khurus, the upper walls were covered with a thin layer of plaster as a carrier for these paintings, but in the nave, where the surface of the upper walls was less flat and regular, a much thicker layer was applied, especially on the sloping lower edges of the windows, in order to create a flat background. Probably not long afterward a major modification was made to the building: the apse was replaced by a new sanctuary, square in plan with a dome of the same height as the dome over the khurus. The inner walls of the haykal at a lower level (up to approximately 3.5m height) were decorated with delicate stucco works, probably by artists from Syria. They have certain similarities to stuccos in the mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo as well as stucco work from Samarra. The higher surfaces were decorated with paintings, of which only fragments remain. The elaborate paintings in the dome, however, survive almost entirely. Two sets of wooden doors with ivory inlay were constructed: one between the khurus and the haykal, and a second set between the nave and the khurus.

© Claremont Graduate University 6 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 1.2.3. The thirteenth to eighteenth centuries The current shape of the building is largely the result of much later reconstructions made between the thirteenth and the eighteenth centuries. In the thirteenth century, the wooden roofs over the side aisles were replaced by barrel and cross vaults, and in the eighteenth century, the same was done in the central nave. In order to support the weight of this barrel vault, it was necessary to incorporate the existing columns into the heavy piers and walls that now dominate the interior of the nave.

In 1782 the church was reconsecrated, which means it had been out of use, probably for renovation. This must have included several activities, such as blocking the windows in the barrel vault over the nave, but it certainly included the replastering of all the walls, except for the three semi-domes. This situation remained unchanged until 1991, when the painting of the Annunciation in the western semi-dome was discovered after a fire severely damaged the painting of the Ascension that had been painted on a layer of plaster covering it. In 1995, the first tests were made to investigate the possible presence of other paintings underneath the eighteenth-century plaster. This has resulted so far in the discovery of several additional paintings.

2. The Mural Paintings on Layer 1 Shortly after the church was finished, its interior was plastered and whitewashed. This layer was decorated with simple, mostly decorative paintings in red and yellow ochre. In a few places the remains of these paintings are visible, though most of them have been covered by later layers of plaster. Up to approximately one meter high a monochrome red dado zone was painted on certain walls. On the western walls in the khurus evidence of this zone was found. In the niches in the upper eastern wall of the nave, decorative patterns are shimmering through the later decorative crosses that must have been painted here in the eighth century. Some other clear examples are the orange crosses that can be seen on the upper parts of the walls of the khurus.

3. Paintings on Layer 2 3.1. Dado One of the first, if not the first, part of the paintings of Layer 2 was a dado decoration that must have covered the lower part of the walls in the entire church. It was done on what is a thick layer of whitewash, rather than a thin layer of plaster. There is a clear terminus post quem for this phase of the decoration: a commemorative inscription on the right side of the entrance in the northern wall, dated to 15 February 714. The fact that this inscription, executed in red on the whitewash, still looks quite fresh could mean that a next layer of fresh whitewash was applied soon after this date. Remains of this Fig. 2 © Claremont Graduate University 7 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 dado are found on all church walls. It consists of a two-meter-high painted imitation of slender columns supporting an architrave that consists of triangular pieces in different colors, probably meant to imitate marble and granite inlay. Between the columns there are rectangular surfaces imitating marble inlay work (Fig. 2). This dado was the basic decoration. Over it, and higher on the walls, several panels containing mostly representations of saints were painted in later years. The main reason for choosing this system of decoration seems to be that the figurative paintings were out of reach.

3.2. Crosses and peacocks On the upper walls of the khurus and the upper part of the eastern wall of the nave, there are red crosses of a model resembling the Maltese cross. They are encircled with green wreaths and floral decoration. They belong to the same phase as the peacocks painted in the triangular surfaces flanking the arches to the semi-domes and the apse in the khurus, and probably are to be dated to the first half of the eighth century.

3.3. The half-domes Today the church has three half-domes: one in the western wall of the nave, and two more in the southern and northern end of the khurus. Originally the church had an eastern apse as well, which was replaced with a square, domed sanctuary in the early tenth century. The intrados of the arches of the semi-domes were once supported by wooden centerings that had a constructive function during the church’s building. Normally such supports for arches and vaults are removed after building is completed, but in this case, they remained and were decorated and incorporated into the architecture.1 These wooden arches were removed during the various renovations the church underwent. In the arch between the nave and khurus and the other semi-domes, remains of decayed wood and impressions of wood in the mortar were found as evidence of the former presence of these centerings. In the western semi-dome, the support was replaced with a brick arch.

The thirteenth-century paintings in the half-domes form a cycle with scenes from the lives of Christ and the Virgin. These scenes are partly a repetition of the eighth-century paintings in the half-domes. The Annunciation in the western half-dome was followed by the Epiphany in the northern conch, there was an Ascension in the eastern apse, and the final scene in the southern conch was probably that of Pentecost.

3.3.1. The Annunciation Discovered in 1991 after a fire that necessitated the detachment of the superimposed painting of the Ascension, this painting is one of the most extraordinary in Christian Egyptian art (Fig. 3). The central part shows the Virgin seated on a throne, approached from the right by the archangel gabriel. The Annunciation itself is flanked by four Old Testament prophets. To the left are Moses and Isaiah, and to the right Ezekiel and Daniel. Each of the prophets holds an opened scroll in his hands. These scrolls contain texts from their writings that foretell the birth of the Messiah in Christian interpretation. Three of the four prophets are dressed in a traditional late-antique tunic and pallium, while Daniel wears Persian dress: a short tunic with trousers and a Phrygian cap, referring to his stay in Babylon.

The backdrop of this scene must represent the town of Nazareth. Its architecture is surprisingly symmetrical, which is slightly obscured by the large lacuna in the middle of the painting. This way of representing architecture resembles some of the details in the mosaics of the Umayyad mosque in Damascus, made at the end of the seventh century. Between the © Claremont Graduate University 8 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 3 pagoda-like towers and roofs of the town there are two trees. The left one, in the background behind Moses, has red lines around its branches as if to evoke the burning bush, an image often used as a symbolic parallel to the virgin conception: God’s fiery presence in the bush did not damage it, just as his Incarnation did not affect Mary’s virginity.

3.3.2. The Epiphany The northern half-dome contained a thirteenth-century painting of the dormition of the Virgin, painted on Layer 4. The layer of plaster on which this painting was made was in such bad condition and its fixation to the underlying painting was so weak that in 2006, after pieces of the painting started to fall, a decision was made to separate the two layers. After removal of the Dormition painting layer, a representation of the Epiphany appeared (Fig. 4). This composition consists of three main parts: middle, right, and left. In the center, there is a representation of the Virgin Mary seated on a richly decorated throne. On her lap she holds an oval on which the infant Christ is represented with certain characteristics of an adult (Christ Emmanuel). Although much of this figure is lost, it is clear that Christ was dressed in a tunic and pallium, while holding a book in his left hand and making a gesture of blessing with his right hand. Over the Virgin’s head, in the top of the conch, the star of Bethlehem is visible against a dark blue background. On either side of the Virgin stands an archangel: to the left Michael, to the right Gabriel. Their names are (partly) legible in Greek inscriptions at the bottom edge of the painting.

The left part of the composition is filled with the figures of the three Magi. The upper part of their bodies is rather heavily damaged; their lower part is better preserved. The figure to the far left is dressed in a tunic and mantle; the other two wear trousers under short tunics. All three are wearing Phrygian caps on their heads. Two names, written below the figures of the Magi, are still legible. The one to the far left is called Dikastia, the middle one Melchior. © Claremont Graduate University 9 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 4 Between the heads of the Magi, although heavily damaged, the heads of their horses are visible. In the sky above them, an angel with both arms outstretched has been painted.

To the left of the Virgin the adoration of the shepherds is depicted. Three persons in short tunics with bare legs are standing in a landscape with trees in the background and rams (but curiously enough no ewes) around their feet. An angel in the sky, symmetrical in position and gesticulation to the angel on the left, is announces the birth of Christ to the shepherds. The fact that the painting shows the adoration of Christ by Magi and shepherds and makes only minor reference to his birth in Bethlehem (the star is in fact the only element) is reason to identify this representation as an Epiphany scene, rather than a Nativity. The composition shows a striking similarity with one of the Monza ampullae where the same theme is depicted. These pilgrims’ souvenirs from the fifth to seventh centuries are supposed to carry representations of holy places in Palestine, and one of them shows a miniature of the apse decoration in the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, which was destroyed during the Persian conquest at the beginning of the seventh century (Grabar and Fourmont 1958: Plates I and II). The similarity with the painting in Dayr al-Suryan could mean that it was a copy of the lost apse in Bethlehem.

The composition is framed by a wide decorative border in the arch between the conch and the central khurus. This border consists of rectangular panels, filled with symmetrical patterns of floral and geometrical motifs. In contrast to the painting itself, which is almost entirely painted in encaustic, the border is in tempera, with occasional touches of encaustic. The border was painted before the Epiphany, maybe even years or decades earlier. 3.3.3. The earlier apse Before the reconstruction of the sanctuary by Moses of Nisibis in the early tenth century, the church must have had an eastern apse with a painting of the Ascension. As in the case of the © Claremont Graduate University 10 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 thirteenth-century Ascension in the western half-dome, the Virgin was probably depicted in the center of a half-circle of apostles. That such a painting existed is certain. Evidence for its existence consists of two figures of apostles found behind the wooden doors of the sanctuary. They face east and are depicted looking up. On the northern side, the remainder of the apse consists of a piece of wall ca. 120cm wide, with a portion of dado decoration like elsewhere in the church, but in a better state of preservation. Over the dado there is the painting of a standing figure dressed in a red tunic and a white pallium. His right arm is raised, while in his left hand he holds a volumen.

The head is lost, but from the position of the neck it is clear that he was looking to the right. He is identified by the inscription +maθia (Matthias) under his feet (Fig. 5). Matthias was the last apostle, chosen after the suicide of Judas, and for this reason he is depicted at the end of the row of apostles, as in the apse of Room 6 in Bawit (Maspero and Drioton 1931: Plate xxiv).

Fig. 5 On the southern side there is a similar figure, this time with half of the head preserved, and a dotted halo. His head is clearly directed upward. Beneath his feet, the inscription [bapθo]λomeoc identifies him as Bartholomew (Fig. 6). Behind him there is a tree.

3.3.4. The southern half-dome There is evidence for a painting under the thirteenth-century paintings in the southern half-dome. We can only guess about the theme of this painting, but if there was an apse with a representation of the Ascension, the most likely theme of the southern conch must have been Pentecost, which was traditionally the final scene of the Christological cycle before the introduction of the theme of the Dormition.

Fig. 6 © Claremont Graduate University 11 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 3.4. Other paintings in the khurus 3.4.1. Virgin Galaktotrophousa One of the first paintings discovered in 1996 was a representation of the Virgin breast-feeding Christ (Fig. 7). The position of this painting is remarkable since, normally speaking, a painting or icon of Christ would be expected in this position, with the Virgin and Child at the left side of the entrance to the haykal. The Virgin is seated on a delicately decorated throne with a red cushion. She wears a blue tunic with red potamoi and a green maphorion over it. The maphorion is decorated with crosses. Her eyes look straight ahead. Her head is surrounded by a yellow halo against the background of a red half-circle, probably meant to represent the upper part of the throne backrest. With her right hand, in which she holds a mappa (kerchief), she supports the infant Christ, while her left hand supports her breast, depicted unnaturally small. Left of the Virgin’s head the Greek text Η αγiα is written as a monogram; the name μαρiα, which doubtlessly must have been written at the other side of her head, has been lost. The background of this painting is dark blue, and it is surrounded by two lines, a black one and an orange-red one.

The iconographical detail of the infant Christ sitting on the right knee of his mother occurs in early paintings and Fig. 7 becomes more and more rare in later times.

The same is the case for the epigraphy: Η αγiα μαρiα is the earliest inscription in representations of the Virgin, later replaced by ΜΡ ΘΥ, the abbreviation for “Mother of God.” In these respects, this painting is comparable to a painting from Room 30 in Bawit, where the same composition with the same epigraphy can be seen. These factors, combined with the fact that a painting of the Virgin would be one of the first subjects represented in a church dedicated to her, make it likely that this mural painting belongs to the early eighth century. 3.4.2. Sergius and Bacchus On the other half-column, and engaged to the same pier, is a painting of a standing military saint. The left part of the painting was covered by the right doorjamb of the haykal doors, constructed in 913/4. It shows a standing, beardless young man, dressed in a blue tunic, covered by a shorter, reddish-brown tunic (Fig. 8). He wears a girdle from which a sword hangs in a red sheath. He holds the sword’s hilt with his right hand, while his left hand holds a staff. He has dark, curly hair and his eyes look straight ahead. The saint’s head is surrounded by a yellow halo, framed by a black line with white dots. At the right side of the head the last letters of a © Claremont Graduate University 12 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 8 Fig. 9 Greek inscription ending in ...γiοc, ...ρiοc or ...τiοc are visible.

If this is the last part of the saint’s name, it could be Sergios, Dimitrios or Georgios, three saints known to be depicted as young, beardless men. Considering the available space for the inscription, it must have been a short name, which makes Sergios one of the most probable identifications. In early Christian iconography military saints are often depicted standing, instead of mounted on horseback. On the quarter-column, and directly left of the doors leading into the haykal, the remains of a painting depict a standing military saint (Fig. 9). Despite damage, the high quality of this painting is still recognizable. It is very similar to the painting at the opposite side of the door. The fact that the two were painted as almost identical counterparts suggests that we indeed have here Saint Sergius and his companion Saint Bacchus, both usually depicted as youthful soldiers. Here they seem to have been painted as guardians to the church sanctuary. © Claremont Graduate University 13 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 3.4.3. Monks on half-columns 3.4.3.1 Anonymous monk Opposite the half-column with the painting of the Virgin Galaktotrophousa there is a painting of a standing monk with raised hands. The man, whose face has been heavily damaged, has gray hair and beard and is dressed in a brown tunic with clavi, over which he wears a black and-white striped cape. Around his head there is a yellow halo.

At the left side of his head the word abba is very faintly legible (Fig. 10). At the right side of his head only faint traces of an inscription were found, doubtlessly the last letters of his name. But since only...ioc can be read there is no certainty about the identity of this monk.

3.4.3.2. Abba Apollo Fig. 10 On the attached half-column on the western wall of the northern khurus, a painting has been uncovered that seems to be a counterpart to the standing monk on the column in the southern khurus. It shows a standing monk in a red tunic and a light-blue cloak (Fig. 11).

Although the painting is heavily damaged, the characteristics of his costume are those of Upper or Middle Egypt. On his shoulders he wears a black hood that has been drawn back.

In his right hand he holds a staff diagonally in front of him. Below his waist, a diagonal line may be the remainder of a rahtou, the leather apron of Pachomian monks. To the left of his head is the inscription abb[.] απoλѡ, and at the other side a remarkably large star is painted on the blue of the background. The meaning of this detail is unclear; it is similar to a star in the background of the famous encaustic icon of Christ from Mount Sinai.

This should be a representation of apollo of bawit, who founded the monastery in Bawit at the end of the fourth century.

Together with the painting of the monk on the other column dressed in Lower Egyptian costume, Apollo seems to represent a personification of monasticism.

Fig. 11 © Claremont Graduate University 14 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 12 3.4.4. Three mounted saints On the eastern wall of the southern khurus, two saints on horseback have been found, represented with the heads of their horses facing each other (Fig. 12). Both saints wear a blue tunic and a red chlamys or military cape. The right one holds a spear in his raised right hand, but at what kind of animal or human being the spear is aimed is no longer distinguishable. The lower part of both paintings is missing as the doorway between the khurus and the southern haykal was cut through the painting.

The small cavalcade of saints continues on the Fig. 13 © Claremont Graduate University 15 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 southern wall, left of the left window. Here we find a painting of victor stratelates, identified by an inscription, this time in Greek: Ο αγiοc [..]ktѡp (Fig. 13). He is represented riding toward the right and wearing a bluish-gray tunic. In his raised right hand, he holds a spear ending in a cross. This spear is directed toward a small kneeling figure in front of his horse. This man is dressed in a red chlamys and wears a crown. Furthermore, he has a halo. No inscription reveals this man’s identity.

His costume would suggest he could be either the emperor diocletian or Romanus, the pagan father of the saint and governor of Antioch, but according to legend, neither of the two was ever confronted by Saint Victor as represented Fig. 14 here. The fact that the kneeling figure has a halo indicates he is king (a saint would be very unlikely here), according to late antique iconography. This leaves us another possibility: this could be mercurius of caesarea killing julian the apostate, but a change of inscription changed his identity to that of Saint Victor. 3.4.5. Holy doctor (Saint Colluthos?) A remarkable painting was uncovered in the middle of the southern wall between the two windows (Fig. 14). On a small but neatly decorated stool, a saint is seated, turned toward the right. He wears a red tunic with a grey pallium. His hair and beard are gray. Much of the painting has been lost, including the face, but his right hand is clearly recognizable. In this he grasps a scalpel or similar instrument, which he holds close to the eyes of a much smaller person standing in front of him. His left arm is draped around the shoulder of the man. The latter is dressed in a red tunic with a greenish cloak over it. In his left hand he holds a staff. In the background stands a third person, his chest bare and the lower part of his body dressed in a red garment. Between the head of the saint and the third person there is a small open cupboard in which there are six red and green bottles.

It is evident that we are dealing with a representation of a doctor treating patients and the cupboard must be a medicine chest. The first question is, of course, which saint is represented here. Several holy doctors are known, but there is no trace of inscription to be found on this painting. It is customary to find an inscription next to the head of a saint, but here, even though the background has been damaged, it seems as if there has never been any inscription. The prominent place he takes in the decoration of the church suggests it should be an important saint, maybe so well-known and © Claremont Graduate University 16 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 recognizable that the painter did not find an inscription necessary. The most likely identification is with Saint Colluthos, who was renowned for curing eye diseases, and who was, together with cosmas and damian, always a very popular saint in Egypt.

3.4.6. Saints Cosmas and Damian It is evident that the saints in this part of the church were grouped according to profession.

To the right of the painting of the seated doctor, two other holy physicians, Saints Cosmas and Damian, are represented standing (Fig. 15). The inscription to the left and right of their heads, again in Greek, reads:

O aγioc koc......ami... Cosmas wears a yellow-brown tunic and a gray pallium, and Damian is dressed in a gray tunic with a brown pallium. In their right hands they hold a spoon, scalpel, or spatula. In the left hands Fig. 15 of the saints, we see an object that is not immediately recognizable. It consists of two cylinders, connected by an angular middle section. Two intertwining black lines emerge from the cylinders. Most probably it is a representation of a portable medicine chest: a common attribute for doctor-saints.

3.4.7. Saint James Minor and another saint adoring the Cross After the removal of eighteenth-century plaster from the eastern wall of the northern khurus and arched doorway, the remains of the surrounding paintings appeared. Although half of their total surface is lost, these representations are still well recognizable (Fig. 16). To the left is a male figure with a halo, dressed in a red tunic and a blue pallium. He is turned toward the right with his hands outstretched. Next to his head is the Coptic text agios (left) [.]akkwbos pson mpos (right) (Saint James, the brother of the Lord). He is turned toward a crux gemmata against a black background in a circle.

The circle has an inner ring that is black with red stars and an outer ring that gradually turns from white to red and from which rays radiate. On the other side is a similar figure, dressed Fig. 16 © Claremont Graduate University 17 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 in a blue tunic with a red pallium. His identity cannot be confirmed anymore since his head and a flanking inscription disappeared during the thirteenth-century renovation of the church. The exact interpretation of this composition is unclear. Both saints are represented in a gesture of praying or adoration, but there seems to be no biblical event to which the painting refers. There is, however, one apocryphal text that may have been the source of inspiration for this painting. The so-called Apocryphon of Saint James, a text from nag hammadi, relates how Saint James and Saint Peter were given a revelation by Christ, who appeared to them between his resurrection and ascension (Williams and Mueller 1977:

29–36). The prominent place of James, who is considered the author of the Syriac liturgy, in this painting, combined with the fact that the door to the northern pastoforion was enlarged just before this painting was made, are reasons to believe Fig. 17 that the pastoforion was turned into a haykal for the first Syrian monks that arrived in the monastery (Innemée 2004).

3.4.8. Saint Luke and Saint Barnabas The panel to the right has representations of Saint Luke and Saint Barnabas (Fig.

17). To the left is Luke, identified by the inscription O agi[..] loukac. Next to him is Barnabas with the inscription O agioc [….]abac. In contrast to the other paintings, the figures are represented in a framework of two arches separated by a column. Also, in other respects this painting is different from the others on the northern wall: it has been done on a black background with a thick layer of encaustic paint, while the others have thinner layers of paint on a white ground. The arches, the deep red of the dress of Saint Luke, and the triple dots as an ornament have a very close parallel in the paintings in the haykal of Benjamin at the neighboring dayr anba maqar (Monastery of Saint Macarius), and Fig. 18 © Claremont Graduate University 18 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 especially the painting of saint john the baptist. This resemblance is so great that it might be presumed that both paintings were done by the same artist.

3.4.9. Standing saint in ecclesiastical dress In the middle of the northern wall there is a painting representing a figure in ecclesiastical dress (Fig. 18). He has a youthful face with a short dark beard and is dressed in a tunic over which he wears a narrow strip of white textile decorated with crosses. His upper garment is a wide cape. He holds a book with both hands in front of him.

A red cloth is draped over his hands. On either side of the person there are representations of architecture. On the left, a tower-like structure may be a church; a ladder stands against it, giving access to the first floor. On the right there is a walled building with a gate. It has not been clarified what the nature and meaning of these buildings might be. The identification of the person poses Fig. 19 problems as well. Next to his head there is a barely legible inscription oaγioc C[....]anoc. The costume he wears looks liturgical, but its white strip does not look like an epitrachelion or an omophorion. If the inscription should be read as “Stephanos,” we could have here a representation of Saint Stephen in a deacon’s costume with an orarion that was slightly misunderstood by the painter.

3.4.10. Saint Pisentius and Saint Apakir On the left part of the northern wall Saints pisentius and Apakir are represented (Fig. 19). Their identity can be established by the inscriptions on either sides of their heads and by their attributes. The left saint is dressed as a bishop, wearing an omophorion with both ends in front. The inscription on either side of his head is still clearly legible. is written to the

abb[...]icenti

left of his head, and to the right of his head This must be Saint Pisentius, whose name

tcinti.

is followed by his title means “the foundation”; it is also the name of the community

(tcinti

close to Dayr al-Bahari, where he lived.). He was born around 568 and consecrated as bishop of Coptos in 598.

Left of the other saint there is the inscription O αγiοc, right the letters απαk[..]. He carries the attributes of a doctor: a medicine box and a scalpel, like those of Cosmas and Damian on the opposite side of the church. This must be Saint Apakir, a Diocletianic martyr who had a reputation as a doctor.

© Claremont Graduate University 19 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 3.5. Paintings in the nave Apart from the dado, the painted decoration in the nave must have been very limited in the eighth century. Only during the ninth century did a gradual addition of paintings begin. This was concentrated in the eastern part; much of the surface over the level of the dado remained blank until the thirteenth-century redecoration of the interior.

3.5.1. Paintings on the eastern wall of the nave Fig. 20 © Claremont Graduate University 20 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 The eastern wall, separating the nave from the khurus and one of the most eye-catching in the church, shows a complicated build-up of paintings in several layers and from various periods (Fig. 20). Since none of these layers is preserved intact and fragments from each period are preserved, this wall offers a confusing sight. As elsewhere in the church, the (encaustic) paintings on Layer 2 were made here on a thick layer of limewash, under which remains of the first decoration in red and yellow ochre are shimmering through here and there.

Until the late eighth or early ninth century, the painted decoration here must have remained rather simple: on the upper wall are red crosses, encircled by green branches and twigs, painted in encaustic, very similar to the crosses on the upper walls of the khurus. Possibly several decades later, the two niches in the wall were decorated inside with elaborately ornamented cruces gemmatae surrounded by flowering branches, while the borders of the niches were Fig. 21 decorated with painted green columns supporting arches (Fig. 21).

At the lower level, on either side of the central arch between the nave and the khurus, there are two attached columns. The outer columns are the easternmost ones in the rows that separate the central nave from the side-aisles, while the central ones support a profiled decorative arch over the gate. This protruding profiled arch is decorated on its front with a Fig. 22 © Claremont Graduate University 21 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 23 Fig. 24 pattern that resembles colorful feathers (Fig.

22) and with geometric rosettes on the inside (Fig. 23). The intrados of this arch was once supported by a wooden centering. On the surface of this arch facing the nave and painted on both the masonry and this wooden centering was a scene of which now only fragments remain. Elements of architecture and a green background suggest that its setting was in the open air. To the left were two or more haloed figures of which one was the Virgin Mary, judging from the monogram for H aγια mαρια (Fig. 24). To the right there are remains of a tree and of other figures, without halos, looking up to the apex of the arch, where the remains of four angels are shown supporting an unknown object or figure. One of the faces of these figures shows a hand held against its forehead (Fig. 25).

Despite these scant remains an identification seems possible. The preserved fragments all show elements that fit in an Ascension scene.

The figure touching his forehead while looking up in amazement has a parallel in a Fig. 25 © Claremont Graduate University 22 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 ninth- or tenth-century icon in saint catherine’s monastery on Mount Sinai, depicting the Ascension of Christ (Manafis 1990: Plate 10). The dating of this painting is problematic. It was made on the same layer as the colorful decoration of rosettes and feather pattern on the protruding part of the arch and it must have been destroyed when the wooden doors between the nave and the khurus were installed in 926. So, all that is certain is that it must date from before that year and it is not impossible that it was painted in 914, when the haykal was remodeled, to serve as a substitute for the Ascension in the apse that was no longer visible from the nave.

3.5.2. The western wall Apart from the monumental Annunciation in the western semi-dome, a continuation of its decorative lower border on the wall to the left is the only decoration from the eighth century that was found here.

3.5.3. The mortuary chapel of Maqari In the eastern part of the southern side-aisle, a series of paintings was made to form a painted cenotaph for Abbot Maqari, who died in 889 (Innemée, Ochała, and Van Rompay 2015: 147–190).

3.5.3.1. Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob Between two blocked windows on the southern wall, there is a painting of the three Old Testament Patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who are enthroned in paradise with the souls of the blessed, represented as small naked genderless figures on their laps (Fig. 26).

The three patriarchs are dressed in brown and reddish- Fig. 26 brown tunics and pallia. Only the middle one wears a white pallium. All three have almost identical, severe faces and long, white hair. A peculiar detail is that the Patriarchs are feeding fruit to the blessed. In the background are four trees from which similar naked figures are picking fruit. The fruit trees in the background and the fact that the Patriarchs are feeding the blessed with fruit may reflect the influence of such literary compositions as the Hymns on Paradise by saint ephraem the syrian. There are several references to fruit and fruit trees in this text, and these passages must have inspired the painter.2 © Claremont Graduate University 23 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 3.5.3.2. Saint Macarius the Egyptian and the cherub Further to the left, and on the other side of a blocked window, another painting with similar dimensions as that of the Three Patriarchs has been uncovered. The painting shows saint

macarius the

egyptian and his cherub, standing on his right side Fig. 27 (top right inset: inscription above/right of cherub) taking the saint by the hand (Fig. 27). In the Vita of Macarius, it is told that at a certain moment, while celebrating Mass, a cherub appeared to him; the cherub later guided Macarius through the desert and showed him a place to live (Toda 2012: 396). The cherub in this painting is the same size as Macarius and has a human face with piercing eyes, its head surrounded by a halo. These elements correspond to the text, but three heads have been added, following the description of the cherubim as they appear in the vision of Ezekiel (Ezekiel 1). From behind this halo, the heads of three animals appear: that of a lion on the left, an ox’s head on the right, and an eagle’s head on top. The creature has six wings, painted in green and covered with eyes; two wings cover the body, except for the feet, which appear from underneath. From underneath these wings appear two hands: the right one opened, while the left one grabs the wrist of St Macarius. Left and above the cherub there is a Coptic inscription that reads (the cherub of the Lord).

pi,erubimecouab In the middle, between the heads of the cherub and Macarius, a Greek/Coptic inscription says (Saint Macarius the Great). To the right of his head a Syriac oagios abba makari.. nis] inscription says “[Ab]ba Maqari the Great.” Macarius has a gray beard and gray hair and is dressed in a brown tunic and a mantle or cape that is white with a pattern of fine black lines. His head is uncovered, while on his shoulders rests a brown cover that may be a pulled-back hood. He stands under an arch of which only a part is visible. The arch rests on an ornamented red capital or part of a frieze or beam. Below this there are two small figures with halos, dressed in the same costume as Macarius and therefore to be identified as monks. Only the one standing in front is clearly visible, while the second is almost completely overlapped by the first. He is turned toward Macarius with his hands in front of him, and palms held together. Underneath the monks we see intertwining branches, green leaves, and fruits. This detail, the monks and the fruits, is not at once easy to identify. The color is like the fruits depicted in the adjacent © Claremont Graduate University 24 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 painting of the Three Patriarchs and they are rather small in relation to the main persons in the scene. It is therefore possible to identify them as grapes. Nevertheless, this detail of the painting remains difficult to identify.

One possible explanation is that a story about Saint Macarius the Alexandrian may have been attributed here to Macarius the Great. This story, related by Rufinus in his Historia Monachorum and occurring in certain redactions of Palladius’s Historia Lausiaca, tells how Macarius the Alexandrian received a bunch of grapes, but, out of humility, passed it on to a brother who seemed ill. This one, in turn, gave it to another and this was repeated until the grapes came back to the sender.3 If this is the explanation of this detail, the question remains why it was added to this painting. The rather awkward way in which the two monks have been squeezed between the figure of Macarius and the frame suggests the painter conceived it as an afterthought, after the figures of Macarius and the cherub had already been painted.

Left of this painting there is another blocked window, and the surface underneath has been divided in two almost equal parts. The top part contains a Syriac inscription, while the lower part has a Coptic text (Fig. 28). In these texts the death of Abbot Maqari on the Sunday of Pentecost in the year 889 CE is commemorated. These inscriptions allow us to date the paintings of the chapel to this year or very shortly afterward. The Syriac text wishes the deceased abbot to repose in the bosom of Abraham and to be in the ranks of saints such as Anthony and Macarius. This explains the connection with the two paintings mentioned here. The element of grapes, refused by Macarius out of humility, occurs again in the scene with the Patriarchs, this time as a heavenly reward.

3.5.3.3. Two saints on horseback Fig. 28 Fig. 29 © Claremont Graduate University 25 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Further to the left, separated from the panel of Saint Macarius by another blocked window, there is a painting representing two saints on horseback (Fig. 29). Due to the narrow dimension of the available space the painter had to depict them in a frontal position, which leads to an unusual form of foreshortening in the perspective of the painting. The right saint is of advanced age and has a severe face comparable to those of the Three Patriarchs and Macarius, with a gray pointed beard and gray hair falling over his shoulders and back. The similarity of the faces in the three paintings is such that there can be no doubt that we are dealing with the work of the same master. On his head he wears a crown or diadem, consisting of a yellow band with yellow and red round objects (gems?) on top. He wears what seems to be a dark red tunic, over which he wears a yellow girdle worn over the chest like a zone stratiotiki or officer’s sash. From his shoulder hangs a shoulder-guard of the ancient Roman type. This and the sash seem to indicate a rather conservative iconography, depicting elements that belong to a long-past era.4 Over this he wears a wide brown cloak, fastened at his right shoulder with a knot. His left hand holds the bridle, while his right arm is raised over his head, holding two spears.

The spearheads are pointed toward two small figures between the legs of the horse. They wear crowns like the crown of the saint on horseback, and both have halos. On a small square surface left blank in the green background, to the left of the right figure, the name Alexandros is written in Greek and Syriac. The second figure is identified by inscription in the dado zone below, where the name of Diocletian is written in Syriac and Greek.

The second horseman seems to be a young man. His face is heavily damaged, but one can see the contours of a haloed face without a beard and red dots on the cheeks, possibly meant to depict a blush. His hair is dark and falls over his shoulders, as in the case of the first horseman. He wears a dress like that of the other saint: a brown tunic with red roundels on the knees and what seem to be red decorative applications on the shoulders. Over his tunic he wears similar braces, while his cloak is white and decorated with a pattern of small crosses, composed of red dots. His left hand holds the bridle, while in his right hand he holds a cross. Left of his head there are traces of an inscription in Coptic and Syriac, painted in white on the dark background. The Coptic text reads [aγi]OC aπa …. It is unusual for a warrior saint to be called Apa, a title more often employed for monks and clerics.

The horses are depicted symmetrically, with heads turned toward each other. Both have an elaborate yellow harness with green and red ornaments, suggesting gold and precious stones. On the horses’ breasts the strips of the harnesses come together in a decorated phalera, or breast shield.

The identification of these horsemen is problematic at first sight. Among the military saints in the Coptic and Syriac Synaxaria there is no one who had an adversary called Alexandros, while Diocletian was not killed by a Christian saint. The misleading factor is that the two are in fact not military or equestrian saints but have been depicted as such. Julius of Aqfahs and his son Theodore were renowned for their care for martyrs in the time of Diocletian and were eventually martyred themselves by Governor Alexandros of the town of Towa. This iconographical transformation, in which the ones responsible for the death of Julius and his son are now the ones being killed, means to express the idea that a martyr, through his death, is in fact the victor. Julius of Aqfahs is not very popular in Coptic or Syriac iconography. Two depictions of him on horseback are known: one in an icon in the church of Abu Sayfan in Old Cairo; the other in a wall painting in Saint Paul’s monastery near the Red Sea.5 Both images date to the middle of the eighteenth century, which makes the painting in Dayr al-Suryan the oldest known example.

© Claremont Graduate University 26 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 30 Fig. 31 3.5.3.4. Double composition on the eastern wall The painting that suggests this part of the church can be considered a chapel for Maqari is the painting on the eastern wall with all the characteristics of an apse composition (Fig. 30). In the upper zone Christ is depicted in heavenly glory, surrounded by a mandorla that has the four apocalyptic creatures appearing from behind. He is dressed in tunic and pallium, both painted purple. His right hand is raised, probably in a gesture of blessing, but his fingers disappear behind the vault that was constructed in the thirteenth century. This position of the right hand of Christ does not occur often. Other remarkable examples are the apse of Room 6 in Bawit and the apse of the Pammakaristos Church in Constantinople. The face of Christ is similar to the other faces made by the same painter (Three Patriarchs, Macarius), but is remarkable for its asymmetry of the eyes and eyebrows. In this respect it shows great similarity with a group of representations of Christ, among them the famous fifth/sixth-century icon in Saint Catherine’s Monastery and the Pantocrator in the south dome over the entrance of the Chora Church in Constantinople (thirteenth century).

On either side is a standing figure with arms stretched in Christ’s direction. They may be angels, but since their faces and wings (if they have any) are also covered by the vault, their identity remains unknown. The left one makes a specific gesture with his right hand: his middle finger and thumb are touching each other.

On either side of Christ at the level of his knees, there is a small figure in monastic dress: a brown tunic and a white mantle with black stripes. The one on the right is standing in a frontal position and should represent Saint Macarius according to the Syriac inscription (“… of Abba Maqari the Great”). The identity of the other, on the left, is unknown. He is kneeling in the direction of Christ. A possibility is that it represents Abbot Maqari.

© Claremont Graduate University 27 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 3.5.4. Virgin Galaktotrophousa On the eastern wall of the northern side-aisle there was a painting of the Virgin Mary of which nothing remains, except for the red frame and a green and blue background with the inscription H A[γia] mapia (Fig. 31).

This encaustic painting was systematically scratched away and later repainted in tempera in a rather crude way. This and other paintings on this wall will be discussed under 4.3.6.

3.5.5. Crosses in blocked windows The windows in the southern aisle lost their function when the perimeter wall of the monastery was built, probably in the early ninth century. Before they were completely blocked to the level of the rest of the wall, they had the appearance of niches. The back sides of these niches were decorated with crosses, similar in design to the crosses in the niches in the upper eastern wall: cruces Fig. 32 gemmatae with flowers springing from the center (Fig. 32). If these crosses are indeed contemporary to each other, a dating to the first quarter of the ninth century would be plausible. Two of the blocked niches were reopened to expose these crosses.

3.5.6. Informal decorations In the northwestern corner of the church several paintings were found that surpass the category of graffito or dipinto, but which probably were not part of “official”

decoration activities. On the northern face of the northwestern corner pier is a monochrome figure in red of a seated Christ. He is shown with short, curly hair and a short beard and holds a rectangular object probably meant to represent a book (Fig. 33). On the western face of the same pier is a delicately drawn cross with a plaited decorative pattern in multiple colors (Fig. 34). A similar cross was painted in the northern wall of the northern side-aisle, opposite the figure of Christ.

Fig. 33 © Claremont Graduate University 28 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 4. Paintings on Layer 3 The third layer of plaster and paintings was not applied all over the interior of the church, but only to parts of the upper walls of the khurus and nave. It covers parts of the floral and geometrical decoration that were applied during the seventh and eighth centuries and was apparently meant as an extension to the figurative paintings in the semi-domes and on the ground floor level. Around the central dome that covers the khurus, fragments of a Coptic text were found that mention a certain Moses who was hegumenos and oikonomos of the monastery; it is most likely this was Moses of Nisibis. The rest of the paintings in this upper part of the church were in that case probably commissioned by him and that would mean they should be dated to the beginning of the tenth century.

Layer 3, in the sense of an extension to the iconographical program of the church under Moses of Nisibis, has been found in the khurus and on the upper walls of the nave.

Fig. 34 The paintings in the haykal belong to the same period, but since the haykal was completely rebuilt by Moses, here these paintings do not cover earlier layers.

4.1. The khurus 4.1.1. Paintings in the dome The paintings in the dome over the khurus are in a very bad state of preservation. An estimated 5% of the painted surface has survived. The most crucial surviving element is a text that runs around the lower part of the dome (Fig. 35):

Fig. 35 © Claremont Graduate University 29 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 † In the name of our [---] in truth. O God, He who … [---] labor and … [---] in … [---] and bless Your servant (sing.) papa Mouses, hegumenos and oikonomos, and papa Aharon and deacon Ioannes, amen.

This text, although it has several lacunae, is a strong indication that the paintings in the upper part of the khurus were commissioned by Moses of Nisibis, along with the second man in the monastery, Aaron, and a deacon named Ioannes. It is remarkable that this text is in Coptic and not in Syriac or Greek.

Over the zone of the inscription there must have been three concentric zones containing representations. This can be concluded from fragments of horizontal red frames found at the edges of the windows and in some other areas of the dome’s surface. The lower zone had a height of 95–98cm, over which was a middle level of ca. 150cm high. The upper zone probably occupied the circular surface of the rest of the dome. Only in the lower zone have enough fragments survived to allow partial identification and interpretation.

4.1.1.1. Lower zone: Minor prophets The western part of the lower zone was occupied by a row of standing figures. The remains of three can be seen left of the western window, and four to the right (Fig. 36). Four of them can be identified as minor Old Testament prophets by the remains of accompanying inscriptions, and calculating from the space each figure occupies, there must have been a row of twelve prophets in total.

The first of the three figures left of the western window cannot be identified. His head with a halo and parts of a red pallium are preserved. To his right there must have been a figure of whom only the left foot survives. Directly left of the window is a standing figure of which the chest, arms, and lower legs are preserved. He is dressed in a red tunic and a white pallium and holds a scroll in his left hand on which the text [μαλα] xeac is written, identifying him Fig. 36 © Claremont Graduate University 30 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 as Malachi. His right hand is raised with the middle and index fingers stretched, as in a gesture of speech.

Right of the window stands a similar figure, dressed in a red tunic and white pallium. He makes the same gesture and holds a scroll on which the letters [I]ѡηλ (Joel) are written. Right of him there are the lower legs of a figure and a scroll with the text [O]bδioc, the prophet Obadiah. Right of Obadiah is the lower part of an almost identical figure, but the part of the scroll that probably contained his name is lost. The last fragment in the row is an upper part of a figure of a youthful man without a beard, who is dressed in the same costume as the previous two. This time his name is written on the left side of his head: [C]eφoniac, Zephaniah. His right foot is visible at the lower edge.

4.1.1.2. Narrative scenes The eastern part of the lower register is poorly preserved, but a few fragments provide a clue to what was once depicted. Directly right of the northern window there is a foot and the remains of a red garment. A bit further to the right is a fragment of plaster on which there are two gray, rounded contours. Between them is what looks like an arch or niche. In this arch is a red vase, two white tabulae ansatae, and a green branch. This can only refer to the contents of the Ark of the Covenant mentioned in Hebrews 9:4: the tablets of the law, the jar with manna and the blooming rod of Aaron. To the right is a leg of a piece of furniture. These scarce fragments permit us to say only that it refers to scenes of the Exodus. Left of the eastern window is a foot in a sandal standing on a white background with wavy, gray lines, which might suggest water. Right of the same window is a fragment that shows a part of a winged figure, holding a staff that points at and overlaps flames to the right of this figure. The most likely identification of this fragment is the episode from the Book of Daniel of the three Hebrews in the fiery furnace. Farther to the right is a fragment of what seems to be the leg of a throne. This might be the throne of King Nebuchadnezzar. To the right of the throne, a foot is visible.

The fact that there are minor prophets depicted in the western part, as well as two fragments that seem to refer to Daniel and Exodus, seems to indicate that the dome of the khurus was dedicated to Old Testament prophets and narrative scenes from their writings. The rectangular part of the khurus, just below the dome, shows several scenes with conversions: the ones on the northern and southern walls the result of preaching by apostles and others. This probably means that the central theme of this upper part was the proclamation of the Word of God in both the Old and New Testament senses.

4.1.2. The square zone under the dome On the northern, eastern, and southern upper walls of the khurus several scenes, most now in fragmentary state, have been found. The scenes in the upper part of the walls have been painted between the windows present there and have one element in common: they depict scenes of conversion and baptism. If the presumption is correct that the southern semi-dome of the khurus harbors an eighth-century painting of Pentecost under the present thirteenth-century layer, these scenes could have been chosen as an extension to that theme.

One zone lower on the eastern wall, a sequence of the death, assumption, and glory of the Virgin Mary has been depicted: iconographical themes that were new to this period. © Claremont Graduate University 31 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 37 4.1.2.1. Abgar and Constantine After removal of eighteenth-century plaster from the upper eastern wall, a row of three blocked windows appeared, corresponding to the windows in the southern and northern walls. Between these windows two paintings were uncovered, belonging to Layer 3 (Fig. 37).

Because of the bad state of preservation, identification was initially uncertain, but after the discovery of Syriac inscriptions underneath, this problem could be solved.

The right painting shows the remains of a person on horseback. The horse is black with a pattern of white spots or decorative shaving.

Of the rider almost nothing is left. The upper part of the frame shows an overlapping fragment of a lance, from which we can deduce the rider is a warrior. In the sky over the rider’s head there is a half-circle with stars and a decorated cross inside, from which rays radiate (Fig. 38). The Syriac text underneath reads: “The king, when he saw the sign [of] the cross [from h]eaven, believed in [Ch]rist.” This is a clear allusion to the vision of constantine.

The space between the middle and the left windows was filled with a painting of which only a fragment of a figure holding a piece of cloth is left (Fig. 39). On this piece Fig. 38 © Claremont Graduate University 32 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 of cloth, a part of a haloed head is visible.

These iconographical indications point already in the direction of abgar, and the inscription under the painting confirms this.

It reads: “...and he sent him the image.” The paintings of Abgar and Constantine clearly fit into an iconographical context.

On the southern wall the conversion of the chamberlain of the Candace by Saint Philip, and Saint Andrew converting and baptizing the dog-headed cannibals, have been represented. On the northern wall in the upper register is an episode from the Acts of Thomas: the conversion of king Gundaphoras is depicted, while in the lower register an inscription indicates that here saint gregory the illuminator had been represented. In other words, the paintings in this part of the church have as a common theme the conversion of foreign peoples.

Abgar and Constantine take prominent places on the eastern wall as the first Syrian king and the first Roman emperor to embrace Christianity. It can also be seen as a Syrian Fig. 39 statement, showing Abgar at an equal level with Constantine.

The dating of these paintings relates to the text around the dome in which the hegumenos Moses can be hardly anyone else but Moses of Nisibis. We also know Moses of Nisibis had the wooden haykal doors constructed in 913/14. This must have been done shortly after the rebuilding of the haykal in its present shape. The paintings of Abgar and Constantine on the upper eastern wall have been carefully made between the three windows that were blocked when the dome over the haykal was constructed. This suggests that the windows were still open when the paintings were made and that they therefore antedate the rebuilding of the haykal. This would mean that the “conversion paintings” on Layer 3 date from before 913/14. The first known representation of Abgar is an icon in Saint Catherine’s Monastery, dated after 945, the year the mandylion was transferred to Constantinople. The painting of Abgar in Dayr al-Suryan must have been made in the time that the mandylion was still in Syrian hands as one of the most treasured relics of Edessa, another indication for a dating to the early tenth century. 4.1.2.2. Saint Philip and the chamberlain of the Candace The southern wall has three windows; the rightmost one having been walled up. Between the left and the middle window in the upper zone is a beardless man seated on a two-wheeled chariot, holding a tablet in his hand with a Coptic inscription (Fig. 40).

In a T-shape, above, and right of his head is a Coptic inscription: (the black man of the piecws nkantakh Candace). This is an illustration of Acts 8:27, describing the conversion of the chamberlain of the Ethiopian queen by the deacon Philip. Of the figure of Philip nothing but his raised hand in a gesture of speech is preserved. The second scene of this story was depicted on the same level between the middle and the right window. A Coptic inscription reads: (the eunuch). pisiour © Claremont Graduate University 33 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 40 Although heavily damaged, this scene is clearly recognizable as the baptism of the eunuch, probably taking place under a sort of red canopy. A part of his bare shoulder and the hand of Philip over his head are preserved and in the lower part of the scene two feet between wavy lines, representing water, are visible.

4.1.2.3. Saint Andrew and the dog-headed cannibals In the lower part between the left and middle window is a scene that was at first puzzling: a standing man with gray hair seems to address five figures with dog heads (Fig. 41). The scene can be identified as Saint Andrew preaching in the land of the dog-headed (or kynokephaloi) cannibals. This apocryphal story is known from the Acta Andreae et Matthiae apud anthropofagos.6 Between the middle and the right (walled-up) window a second baptism scene was found (Fig. 42). The same man as in the scene of the dog heads (i.e., Saint Andrew) is shown, baptizing two people.

There is reason to believe this represents the baptism of the cannibals, who have undergone a metamorphosis. In another version of the same story, a Syriac poem Fig. 41 © Claremont Graduate University 34 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 attributed to Ephraem the Syrian, it is said that the converted savages’ appearance changes to that of “children of light” (Van Esbroeck 1999).

4.1.2.4. Saint Thomas and King Gundaphoras In the upper register of the northern wall only fragments are preserved, but enough remains to identify the subject of at least one scene. Left above the central window is a group of people that can be described, from left to right, as follows: a man’s face with a thin moustache, surrounded by a halo. Fragments of his hands are visible:

the two fingers of his outstretched (right) Fig. 42 hand make a gesture of speech or blessing, while the left hand, below, holds a scroll. To the right is a figure whose head is missing, although parts of a halo are still visible (Fig. 43). He wears a brown tunic with reddish-brown folds and a red pallium-like vestment over it. One of his wrists is still visible and shows a remarkable red color. Then there is a figure clearly recognizable as a bearded king, wearing a crown with red and green ornaments and a halo. Over his head are the three Greek letters ypo, possibly a fragment of a name. His beard is gray, and his skin has the same red color as the person beside him. He wears a red tunic and brown overgarment with reddish-brown folds. His face is turned to the upper right and the little finger of his right hand is visible in front of his beard, as if he raises his hand in a gesture. His left arm is stretched out in front of him and overlaps the black contour line of a semicircle suspended from the upper frame of the painting. Fig. 43 © Claremont Graduate University 35 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Within this semicircle, against a blue background with red dots on which there are white stars, there is a symmetrical building with a dome, towers, vaults, and an enclosure wall.

The only possible interpretation of this scene seems to be a story from the second part of the Acts of Thomas, where the apostle arrives in India in the company of the Indian merchant Abbanes, who introduces him to King Gundaphoras. Thomas, being asked to build a palace for the king, distributes the money for doing this among the poor, and Thomas tells the king that he built “a palace in heaven” for him. This seems to be depicted here: Thomas, Abbanes, and the king look up to see the heavenly palace. The letters over the king’s head remain difficult to connect to his name.

4.1.2.5. Saint Gregory the Illuminator The story of the conversion of the Armenians must have consisted of two parts. The second scene, painted under the first scene and between the two windows, has almost completely disappeared, except for a piece of bluish-gray background on which we can see the shoulder and part of the halo of a figure.

Fortunately, an inscription to the left of this figure has been entirely preserved. It reads Gregory the grhgorios piermenios, Armenian, i.e., Saint Gregory the Illuminator (Fig. 44). He is well known for his preaching of Christianity in Armenia, and this scene must have depicted a baptism of one or more people, judging from the preserved fragment in the lower right corner, where a part of a naked figure between wavy lines, depicting water, is visible. Of the upper panel, only a foot in the lower right corner survives. It may have been a scene depicting Gregory preaching.

The scenes represented in the upper part of the khurus show themes that are rare in Christian iconography. Since their common subject is the conversion and baptism of foreign people, there may have been a context connected with Pentecost. As Fig. 44 mentioned above, Pentecost is a likely theme for the painting still hidden in the southern semi-dome, and in that case, the paintings in the upper part of the khurus were meant as an extension to this theme. Constantine and Abgar have “places of honor” on the eastern wall, while on the southern wall conversions connected with the south, and on the northern wall conversions in the north and east, are depicted. 4.1.2.6. Crosses On the eastern and southern walls of the khurus, to the right of the right windows and to the left of the left windows, the remains of four crosses in total were found. These crosses, all different in shape, were painted in mainly red and green and are surrounded by a frame of red with a row of white dots on a black line in it.

© Claremont Graduate University 36 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 4.1.2.7. Dormition, Assumption, and Glory of the Virgin Fig. 45 Just under the level of the paintings of Abgar and Constantine are important remains of a sequence of paintings representing events surrounding the death of the Virgin Mary. This series of representations must have been painted later, though probably not much later. This can be deduced from a slight overlap of these paintings with the higher paintings of Constantine and Abgar. The thin layer of plaster applied for these paintings was still clean enough to add the Dormition sequence, but it already had some cracks. This suggests an interval of a few decades at most between the two sets of paintings. Although they were made in a period when the population of the monastery had a significant Syriac component, we find only Coptic inscriptions accompanying the several scenes.

At the far left is a representation of the Dormition (Fig. 45). The Virgin lies on a bed, surrounded by the twelve apostles seated in two rows on either side of the bed. They are not individually identified, but both groups of six have the explanatory text Apart from the apostles are niapostolo[.].

six women, three on either side, who are swinging censers. This is a rather remarkable detail since the handling of censers is traditionally a male activity in the Orthodox churches. The Coptic inscription in the painting calls the six women ni parcen[..], virgins, without any specific names. Behind the bed a large, winged figure stands, most probably to be identified as saint michael the archangel, who is by tradition the psychopomp, the one accompanying the souls of the dead to the hereafter. The only remains of his name are the letters He is standing, his hands […..]hl.

stretched out in a gesture as if he is expecting Fig. 46 © Claremont Graduate University 37 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 to receive the soul of the Virgin. This detail is also unusual; in all known representations of the subject, Christ is taking this position.

The oldest representations of the Dormition are post-iconoclastic; the earliest dated examples are from the tenth century. Since the paintings on the upper walls of the khurus were probably commissioned by Moses of Nisibis in the very beginning of the tenth century, the Dormition painted here is possibly one of the earliest known so far.

To the right there was a scene that is now almost completely missing. The only surviving part of the representation is a group of men at the far right, looking upward with expressions of amazement (Fig. 46). At the top of the edge is a fragment of a Coptic inscription reading: “The body of....” This is a strong indication that the now missing scene pswma nti represented the assumption of the body of the Virgin.

The center of the sequence contains the representation of Christ and the Virgin, sitting side by side on a throne (Fig. 47). He holds her left hand by the wrist and raises it as if in a gesture of triumph. At the left side of the head of the Virgin is a representation of the sun, while the moon is visible to the right of the head of Christ. This scene can be considered as a representation of the reunification of the body and soul of the Virgin in Paradise and her reception by Christ. This representation is also quite exceptional. There seems to be no known direct parallel for it. A throne shared by two or more deities or emperors is known from earlier periods. A late-antique example of such a representation, where sun and moon are also flanking the throne, is a miniature from the Virgilius Vaticanus, showing Jupiter and other deities on a throne.

Fig. 47 © Claremont Graduate University 38 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 4.2. The sanctuary (haykal) 4.2.1. Paintings in the dome The paintings in the dome of the haykal are of unusual composition: Instead of a single theme connected with heavenly symbolism, like the Ascension or a Pantocrator, the surface is divided into eight equal parts, while in the top center there is a cross (Fig. 48). The cross has four arms of equal length and is painted in red contour lines against a background of three concentric circles in different shades of blue. Four light blue rays radiate symmetrically from the center of the cross. The cross is surrounded by a circular zone decorated with an acanthus motif. Fig. 48 © Claremont Graduate University 39 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 The eight panels into which the surface of the dome is divided have the shape of an arch that narrows toward the top. The four panels on the eastern, southern, western, and northern sides have figurative representations. The panels in between are decorated with a symmetrical pattern of acanthus leaves springing from a central stem. This stem stands in a krater-like vase.

The dome’s layout shows similarity with a recently cleaned dome-like ceiling decoration in the catacomb of Domitilla in Rome, which consists of five panels with figurative representations, alternating with five panels with symmetrical acanthus patterns (Lorenzi 2017). This is an indication that this kind of dome decoration was common between the fourth and the tenth centuries, but that apparently few have survived. Contemporary examples of this kind of decoration are not yet known.

Fig. 49 © Claremont Graduate University 40 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 The eastern panel shows a representation of the Ascension of Christ (Fig. 49). In the upper zone of the painting a figure of Christ is seated on a rainbow-like semicircle, within a mandorla. His right hand makes a gesture of blessing, while his left hand holds an open book on which the letters + C... H... N... φѡcka ….. H.eπanactach are visible. This is a Greek text that might be a conflation of John 11:25 and 8:12: “I am the light, the life, and the resurrection.” To the left of the head of Christ the letters emma are written, and to the right noyhλ. This epithet, Emmanuel, is unusual for Christ in the Ascension. The mandorla is supported by four angels.

In the lower zone, the Virgin and twelve apostles are depicted. The Virgin is standing in the middle with raised hands, and is identified by the text H aγia mapia, written to the left and right of her head. Flanking her are the apostle Peter (to her right) and another apostle who can only be John if we compare his characteristics to those in the Transfiguration painting in the western part of the dome. In both cases, John is depicted with a beard. Where it is common to find Saint Paul as the counterpart for Saint Peter, here the iconographer must have had in mind a similarity with the Transfiguration. Behind both Peter and John are five other apostles. Only Peter and John have halos, while the others do not have any specific characteristics, apart from the second person from the right, who, by his wild gray hair, can be identified as Saint Andrew. In the background there are five stylized trees, bearing fruits. The southern panel in the dome has a similar composition to the eastern one, with an upper and a lower zone, but here two Old Testament episodes are depicted: the visions of Isaiah and Ezekiel (Fig. 50). The figure of Christ in the upper zone shows great similarity with the one in the Ascension scene; the main difference is that the book he holds is closed here. His mandorla is surrounded by the four creatures of the Apocalypse, each with three pairs of wings covered with eyes, from which two human arms are protruding.

Next to Christ’s head the name Emmanuel is written here as well, and in this case, it most likely refers to Isaiah 7:14, the chapter following the chapter in which the vision of the prophet is described. Over the head of Christ, the word aγioc is written three times: a clear reference to Isaiah 6:3, where the cherubim are chanting this word. On either side of Christ is a cloud within which there are five heads of angels, judging from the wings that are visible behind them.

In the lower zone are the figures of the two prophets, standing on either side of an altar on which there is a chalice and a bowl. The altar table is covered with two cloths. To the left of the altar is the prophet Isaiah, in a half-kneeling position, turned toward the right. Of his name only parts of the Greek letters HA are visible. Over his head a six-winged cherub (in the vision of Isaiah the six-winged beings are called seraphim) with four heads, one human and three smaller ones of a lion, eagle, and ox, is hovering. Over the altar a second cherub of similar appearance is depicted, holding tongs with which he places a coal in the mouth of the prophet. This coal has the shape of a small cross.

On the opposite side of the altar the prophet Ezekiel is depicted. He is identified by a partially preserved inscription that reads ezekih. ѡπpo…. In his left hand he holds an unrolled scroll with the text: “And he opened my mouth, and he fed me with the scroll of a book.” The prophet’s right hand is stretched out to a third cherub depicted over his head that puts a book scroll into his mouth, as described in Ezekiel 3:1.

© Claremont Graduate University 41 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 50 The western segment of the dome shows a representation of the Transfiguration, as described in the synoptic gospels (Matthew 17:1–8, Mark 9:2–8, Luke 9:28–36) (Fig. 51). Christ is again depicted in the upper zone of the composition, within a light blue mandorla. Over the mandorla is written in Coptic (“This is my son the beloved vai pe pashri pamenrit one.” Matt. 17:5). That these are the words of God, resounding from heaven, is underscored by the hand of God making a gesture of speech that must have been present over Christ’s head, of which only a fragment survives. Christ is depicted wearing a gold-colored tunic and pallium. His facial characteristics differ signifi-cantly from the figure of Christ in the Ascension at the opposite side of the dome. He has short, curly hair and a very short beard. This type of Christ, © Claremont Graduate University 42 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 51 also known as Christ the Priest, is rarely shown in iconography and is known from just a few examples, such as a solidus from the time of Justinian II (early eighth century) and a medallion over the sanctuary of Hagia Sophia in Kiev (eleventh century).

The choice for this specific type of face may have been inspired by the location (the haykal), while Christ’s priesthood “after the order of Melchizedek” is associated with Mount Tabor, where Melchizedek lived as a recluse according to tradition.

In the lower part of the Transfiguration, on either side of Christ’s legs, the text emmanoyλ (sic) is written. Six white bundles of rays appear from behind his back. The © Claremont Graduate University 43 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 mandorla gives the impression of being transparent, as the two flanking figures, Moses and Elijah, are visible half within the mandorla, but overlapped by its outline. Christ holds an object in his left hand that looks like a double book scroll, tied with a red cord. Moses, standing to the left, is identified by the text mѡhchc, while Elias has the text hλiac next to him. In the lower zone the three apostles Peter (πetpoc), James (OA hakѡ…) and John (OA IѠ) are represented: Peter to the left, James below the feet of Christ, and John to the right. While Peter and John stand with their hands raised, the figure of James is depicted in a somewhat awkward way, as if he is crouching with one hand under his chin. In the background in the lower zone there are three churches, each with a bell tower and crosses on the roof. They must refer to the three churches that must have been present on Mount Tabor in the sixth century and which Fig. 52 © Claremont Graduate University 44 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 were mentioned by the Pilgrim of Piacenza (Wilkinson 1977: 81).

This depiction of the three churches on Mount Tabor is rare, one of the parallels being a miniature in fol. 48 in Ms. BN Copte 13, a manuscript dating from around 1180.

The painting has certain elements in common with the miniature fol. 583 of BN Gr. 510: the transparent halo, through which Moses and Elijah seem to step, the hand of God appearing from above, and the fact that John is depicted as an old man.

The fourth segment of the dome with figural painting is the one in the north (Fig. 52). Here, an unusual combination of themes has been depicted. As in the other paintings, this composition consists of an upper and a lower part. In the upper part, a man with gray hair and a gray beard is seated on a richly decorated throne, surrounded by a blue mandorla. The Coptic text over his head calls him the Ancient of Days, a clear reference to the vision of Daniel, where an old man with gray hair appears (Dan. 7:9). On both sides of the Ancient of Days, five angels are standing and facing toward him, with the palms of their hands opened to him. A remarkable element is the cross halo encircling his head, and the text emmanoyhλ next to his head, elements usually connected with Christ.

Representations of the Ancient of Days are rare in eastern Christian art from before the twelfth century. In this case there is only one parallel: the earliest known representation of this theme, a seventh-century icon in Saint Catherine’s Monastery at Mount Sinai. In that icon, a figure of Christ with gray hair, a cross halo, and the name E[mma]nuel written next to his head is depicted, a rare combination of elements (Weitzmann 1976: 41–42, Plate xvii). The right part of the lower part of the composition is dedicated to the prophet Daniel himself, looking up at the Ancient of Days. He is dressed in his traditional costume of trousers, short tunic, mantle, and a Phrygian cap. His right hand is raised with stretched-out index and small fingers, while his left hand holds a scroll with the Coptic text “I, Daniel, saw the Ancient of Days.” As a double identification, the name δanihλ is written to the right of his head. In the top part of the lower zone a number of objects seem to be hovering in the air. In the middle there is what may represent a pool of fire, flanked on either side by horn-shaped objects. This may refer to the pool of fire in which horned animals were thrown, according to Daniel’s vision (Dan. 7:11). To the left of these, and over the head of Abraham (still named Abram at that time), there is an opened diptych or codex, while to the far right, over Daniel’s head, is a scroll.

These seem to be hanging in the air and may allude to the vision of Daniel, where it is written: “…and the books were opened” (Dan. 7:10).

To Daniel’s left, a scene with three persons is depicted: Melchizedek offering bread and wine to Abram, who is accompanied by Isaac. The episode is described in Genesis 14:18– 19, but here a mere refreshment after a battle is mentioned, while in the painting the scene is ritualized in the way we know from other Coptic paintings: Melchizedek as priest, offering communion to Abram (Van Loon 1999, 126). In this painting an altar is placed in the middle on which there is a dish with liturgical bread, depicted as small crosses, like the “coal” that the seraph put in the mouth of Isaiah. The second object on the altar table is a chalice stand, a metal cage-like object used in the Coptic liturgy to protect the chalice when it is covered with veils. The chalice itself is held by Melchizedek in his left hand, while with his right hand he puts a cross-shaped morsel of eucharistic bread into the mouth of Abram. Apart from the brief basic story in Genesis, the iconography of this scene leans heavily on apocryphal stories according to which Melchizedek was a naked hermit with uncut nails and hair. Before receiving bread and wine from this unkempt hermit, his appearance had to be civilized, and Abram was ordered to cut his nails and hair (van Loon 1999: 127–128). Behind Abram is a figure of a boy, dressed in a short red tunic, holding a tray with a pair of scissors and an elongated object that may be a razor. The accompanying text (icaak) identifies him as Isaac.

If this is meant to be the son of Abraham, there is a strange anachronism in this representation, since Isaac was born years later. The proleptic presence of Isaac can be explained by the fact that Abraham’s sacrifice of © Claremont Graduate University 45 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 his son is equally a typological prefiguration of the Eucharist, and that the painter has tried to stress the typological character of the image and not its narrative/chronological aspect. 4.2.1.1. Floral patterns On the remaining four panels between the figurative panels are floral decorations, based on a central stem with more or less symmetrical branches and leaves (Fig. 53). This kind of decoration seems rare for the tenth century, but rather based on classical patterns.

The total composition of the dome over the altar is both complicated and unprecedented in certain respects in Coptic painting.

The four figurative panels have in common that they represent a theophanic image, with the northern and southern ones based on the Old Testament, and the eastern and western ones showing New Testament themes. They also share a division into two zones, upper and lower.

4.2.1.2 General observations Originally, before the haykal was rebuilt under Moses of Nisibis, there was an apse Fig. 53 with a representation of the Ascension (Innemée 1995:

129–132), which is confirmed by the remains of the Ascension painting: two apostles looking up, at the ground floor level of the haykal. It seems this theme was repeated intentionally in the eastern side of the dome. The Transfiguration, which until that moment was not present in the iconographical program of the church, was added as a counterpart on the opposite side. The Old Testament themes have a theophanic character and are also typologies for the Eucharist. Isaiah and the Seraph is known from the sanctuaries of Saint Antony Monastery (dayr anba antuniyus) and Saint Macarius Monastery. The vision of Ezekiel is found here for the first time, but there can be no doubt that the eating of the scroll is meant as a prefiguration of the Eucharist. The meeting of Abram and Melchizedek is a known subject as well: it occurs in the churches of the two monasteries mentioned above and also in dayr al-baramus. The vision of Daniel, on the other hand, is depicted here for the first time.

Another remarkable feature in these paintings is the use of the name Emmanuel for Christ, the divine appearance in the visions of Isaiah and Ezekiel, and the Ancient of Days. On © Claremont Graduate University 46 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 the wooden doors, commissioned by Moses of Nisibis, Christ is also accompanied by this inscription. This systematic use of this name cannot be coincidence and may be meant to underscore the common nature and identity of Christ and God the Father, the God of the Old Testament.

The composition of the dome over the altar is another example of the creative spirit behind the iconography of the early tenth-century paintings: most likely Moses of Nisibis, the one who commissioned the rebuilding of the haykal.

4.2.2. Paintings below the dome The wall surfaces between the stucco decoration at ground floor level and the dome must have all been decorated, but almost nothing remains of these paintings today.

The dome itself is constructed on an octagonal basis, based on four squinches over the square plan of the haykal. In this octagon there were eight windows, which have all been blocked except one. Between each of these windows are arch-shaped painted panels having a decorative geometrical floral pattern. These paintings only survive on the northern side.

The wooden squinches once carried representations of four cherubim, and, judging by the remains in two of the squinches (Fig. 54), the northeastern and northwestern ones, they resembled the cherub in the painting of Macarius on the southern wall of the church’s south aisle. A similar cherub is preserved in one of the squinches of the haykal of Benjamin in Dayr Fig. 54 Anba Maqar.

In the square zone of the haykal there must have been paintings, of which only scant remains survive. In the middle of the southern wall is the lower part of a standing figure of a bishop dressed in a red tunic, a blue phelonion, and a creamy white omophorion, on which there are two H-shaped ornaments (Fig. 55). The facts that both ends of the omophorion hang in front and that he wears no epitrachelion are characteristic of sixth-century bishops’ costumes, so this painting is probably meant to represent a church father from a remote past.

© Claremont Graduate University 47 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 55 In the southeastern corner on the same level are remains of painting that are impossible to identify. One level lower on the eastern wall, to the far right, there are remains of a painted frame with the inscription Which Gregory was depicted here remains unclear.

grigor[I]os.

Fig. 56 © Claremont Graduate University 48 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 On the southern wall, just over the level of the stucco decoration, are remains of a scene of which only fragments of the lower border and a few centimeters over it survive (Fig. 56). On a green background there are legs of chairs or thrones and feet in luxurious shoes, most likely for the figures seated on these thrones, turned toward the east. Given the size of the figures and the surface of the wall, there may have been eight such figures in a row. If on the northern and eastern walls there were similar figures, they may have been the 24 elders of the Book of Revelation (Rev. 4:4). A parallel would be the upper walls of the haykal of Saint Anthony´s Monastery, where these elders are represented.

4.3. Paintings in the nave On the upper walls of the nave several scenes were painted that were intended as additions to the eighth-century Christological/Mariological cycle in the semi-domes. Very little remains of these scenes and only one can be identified with certainty. These narrative scenes were painted in a frieze over the wooden architraves and under the windows of the clerestory. Between these windows, all of which were blocked in the eighteenth century, there were decorative crosses of various designs, of which only fragments survive. These paintings must have been added in the time of Moses of Nisibis. The concept of narrative New Testament scenes on the upper walls of the nave was not new. In Egypt the sixth-century church of Karm al-Ahbariya must have had such a sequence, which was in many respects comparable to that of Dayr al-Suryan. This church, however, was destroyed in the seventh century and cannot have served as a direct source of inspiration.

4.3.1. Paintings on the eastern wall The lower part of the wall must have been whitewashed and then painted in a relatively late stage. An important indication for the dating of this part of the second layer is a fragmentary Syriac inscription with a partly preserved date in it (around 900 CE) found on Layer 1, just behind the separation doors on the right side.7 This means the paintings on Layer 2 here should date from the tenth century at the earliest.

Although this implies that they date from the period after the arrival Fig. 57 of the first Syriac monks, the epigraphic inscriptions are all in Coptic and Greek. At the lowest level, between © Claremont Graduate University 49 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 and on the columns, several figures can be distinguished, although some of them are partly covered by later layers. Between the two attached columns on the left part of the wall there is the figure of Simeon the Stylite, of which now only the head and a Coptic inscription with his (abba sumewn pisthl..) name are visible. On the opposite side of the wall, between the attached columns on the right, saint paul of thebes is depicted, standing frontally with arms in orans position (Fig. 57). His long gray beard seems to cover his whole body. To the left of his head a raven can be seen, while below the remains of a small figure, holding a staff with a pilgrim’s flask attached to it, are visible. To the right of Paul is a palm tree with a large bunch of dates hanging from it. Identification of the painting is primarily based on its iconography; an epigraphic text is missing.

But apart from this there is an inscription in red ochre on Layer 1 that seems to have been written as an instruction to the painter. The Greek text reads […]C O θeibaio[C], “the Fig. 58 Theban.” The saints Simeon and Paul, depicted as counterparts, seem to have been chosen here as personifications of Syrian and Egyptian asceticism. In the thirteenth century, walls were built between the attached columns, so that both saints are now only visible by looking from above into the space between the walls. Left and right of Saint Paul of Thebes are two figures, now mostly covered by the thirteenth-century wall. To the right, on the attached column, is a standing figure of a monk with an inscription on the left side of his head reading most probably Aba pau[…], a namesake of Saint Paul of Thebes. On the other attached column, and to the left of Paul of Thebes, is a standing figure who cannot be identified.

On the left side of the wall and to the right side of the attached columns, visible at eye level, is a painting representing a figure dressed in a gray cape with a hood resembling a monk’s costume. To the right of his head is an inscription that reads πατριαρ[Χ]ΙC (Fig. 58). His name must be on the left side of his head, but this part is still covered by later plaster. We are dealing here with an unusual case where a patriarch is seemingly represented as a monk. The only detail that Fig. 59 © Claremont Graduate University 50 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 distinguishes him from a “normal” monk is the mappa or enchirion (a napkin-like strip of textile) in his left hand.

Left of the entrance to the khurus there is a figure of a saint (Fig. 59). The Coptic text to the left of his head reads and on the right there are the remains of a word: + abba uwshv p [a] ]r [….] that could be the beginning of the word “patriarch.” His halo, partly covered by the plaster of the Syriac inscription, was rather crudely restored with red paint.

At the left inside of the arch between nave and khurus are the remains of a standing figure, now obscured by the doorjamb of the doors between the nave and khurus. The inscription to the left that identifies him, however, is still readable: Which Abba iakkobos.

Jacob is meant remains unclear, since the rest of the painting is hardly visible. On the opposite side of the entrance gate an equally unrecognizable figure is present, half covered by the right doorjamb. An inscription to the right of the head reads + agios Other paintings belonging to the eighth or ninth centuries may be present under +a.moutos.

the thirteenth-century painting that covers the rest of the right lower part of the wall. During the ninth or tenth century two paintings of the archangels Michael and Gabriel were added to the upper part of the wall, the former to the left, the latter to the right side (Figs. 60 and 61). The two angels are almost identical in dress, although close examination shows that they are the work of two different hands. They are each dressed in a blue tunic and a red pallium. Their wings are green, and both hold a blue orb in their left hand and a staff in their right. Michael is identified by the inscription Gabriel by ar,haggel\ Mi,a[h]l, ar[,hagge+l\ [g]aurihl.

Fig. 60 Fig. 61 © Claremont Graduate University 51 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 63 Fig. 62 4.3.2. The Nativity In the middle of the southern wall was a large scene, surmounted by a decorative frieze of rosettes that are almost identical to those on the profiled arch on the eastern wall. Most of the scene has disappeared, but three fragments can be recognized with enough certainty that the original scene can be identified as a Nativity. To the left are two figures pointing upward (Fig. 62). They must be shepherds looking at the star of Bethlehem. At the bottom there is a fragment showing feet and the forelegs of a sheep. Both details show great similarity with the figures of the shepherds in the Epiphany scene in the khurus. To the far right, there is a seated figure supporting his head with his hand in a contemplative gesture (Fig. 63). This is the way joseph is often depicted in the Nativity. To the left of this seated figure/Joseph is the figure of a young man with long dark-blond hair, dressed in a mantle, trousers, and luxurious shoes. He is turned toward the left and holds a container with round white particles (myrrh, incense?) and there can hardly be doubt that he is the youngest of the three Magi. The central part of the composition where the Virgin and other figures would be represented is missing.

4.3.3. Unidentified scene (multiplication of bread?) On the opposite side of the nave there were several scenes, probably narratives from the life of Christ. Only minor fragments of the lower border of this frieze remain. There was a Coptic inscription on this lower border, but only isolated configurations of letters remain, providing too little to help with interpreting the remains of the paintings. One fragment of a painting shows two pairs of feet, one with sandals and the other without, and what look like five bags containing round white objects. A possible interpretation is that this concerns a fragment of the © Claremont Graduate University 52 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 miraculous multiplication of bread and fish, a scene that was probably also present on the northern wall of the former church at Karm al-Ahbariya (Witte-Orr 2010: 57–61).

4.3.5. The Forty Martyrs of Sebaste On the upper western wall, to the far left, are remains of a painting of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste (Fig. 64). The figures of five men with naked chests in orans position are clearly recognizable, and at the lower border the feet in wavy lines depicting water identify the subject with certainty. It is remarkable that such a scene apparently interrupts a sequence of Christological subjects. The only explanation for such a Fig. 64 prominent place in the church would be the presence of the relics of the martyrs in the collection of the church.

4.3.6. The niche of the relic shrine The eastern end of the northern side-aisle is traditionally the place where relics are kept, not only in Dayr al-Suryan, but also in other churches in Wadi al-Natrun. The extraordinary chest from the time of Moses of Nisibis, which is kept in the monastery museum, was produced to contain a collection of relics and its original location must have been the eastern end of the northern side-aisle.

The iconography of the paintings on this wall, compared to the figures depicted in ivory inlay on the chest, confirms this supposition.

Fig. 65a © Claremont Graduate University 53 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Central on this wall, and possibly dating back to the eighth century, was a painting of the Virgin Mary (Fig. 65a; see also section 3.5.4.). It was scratched off the wall, leaving only its contours and background. After that, but it is impossible to say when, the painting was repainted in tempera in a rather crude way. No gesso or preparation layer was applied; the painting was made directly on top of the bare plaster.

It shows the Virgin Galaktotrophousa, painted in mostly shades of red, with a Christ-child on her right knee that is unusually large and who has the appearance of a small adult holding a book.

Nothing is evident concerning the situation in this corner of the church before the tenth century, but it is clear that at the instigation of Moses of Nisibis, the place where the relics were kept was completely refurbished. A Coptic inscription painted in two panels between the upper and lower zone of the paintings mentions in a prayer-like formula Moses of Nisibis the hegumenos and oikonomos, so he is likely to be the one who commissioned these paintings. The painting of the Virgin in the middle of the wall was covered by a panel or icon with a semicircular top, possibly an icon of the Virgin. After that the wall was plastered over as preparation for other paintings. In the thirteenth century the panel must have been removed, leaving its contours in the surrounding plaster. Four saints were painted on the wall: two in the upper part and two flanking the central panel.

The upper part of the wall is now partly Fig. 65 covered by a pointed vault over the side-aisle that was constructed in the thirteenth century (Fig. 65).

To the left in the upper part is the second-century martyr saint eustathius on horseback, pointing his spear at a gazelle or deer painted in blue with red dots. Directly over the head of the gazelle, in the middle of the composition, is a medallion of which only the lower part is preserved. It contained the bust of a person of whom only the left hand holding a book survives—most probably an image of Christ, referring to the legend according to which the saint saw an appearance of Christ during his hunt. This image of Christ probably plays a double role since it is also part of the scene on the right, that of another saint on horseback, saint theodorus anatolius, fighting a dragon. In this scene we see the saint, whose horse is directed toward the middle of the composition, in front of a ladder at the foot of which is a snakelike dragon with a human head. The ladder reaches up to the medallion in the top of the composition. All of this is in accordance with the legend of Theodorus Anatolius who, in a vision, saw a dragon at the foot of a ladder, at the top of which he saw Christ enthroned in © Claremont Graduate University 54 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 heaven. Later, when accompanied by Saint Leontius at the river Tanubis, he encountered the dragon (Satan) in reality, and pierced it with his spear, but without killing it (Nafroth 2917: 323–324).

In the lower zone of the wall, to the right of where the central panel used to be, there is a standing saint in military outfit, dressed in a white cape with a luxurious gold-colored border, and two short tunics over which he wears pteruges. Underneath he wears trousers and luxurious shoes. On his head there is camelaucium-like bonnet. In his right hand he has a staff ending in a cross; his left hand holds an oval shield that rests on the ground partially behind him. According to the Coptic or Greek inscription this is Saint Leontios This should (leontios).

be saint leontius of tripoli, a first-century Roman soldier who was martyred for his faith and was popular in the Antioch region. On the left side of where the panel used to be there is another military saint in an almost identical outfit, with the only difference being that his cape is red. The inscription to the right of his head reads i.e., jacob [I]ak[o]bos pi[va]rs[I],

the persian.

On the northern wall of the niche is a fragment of a painting representing another military saint whose identity remains unknown. Only the lower part, down from the middle, has been preserved, and it clear that the figure was much taller than the others in the eastern wall. We see a figure clad in a red cape, brown pteruges, a short blue tunic, and blue trousers. He holds a spear that pierces a red circular object that is difficult to identify. On the front of the tenth-century relic chest there are, apart from Christ and the Virgin, inlaid figures of five saints whose relics were apparently kept in the shrine: Saint Eustathius, Saint Theodorus Anatolius, Saint john the little, Saint Jacob the Persian, and at the far right, a military saint whose name was never added to the aγioc, inlaid to the left of his head. It may be clear that the saints depicted in the niche in the northern side-aisle are the same as the ones depicted on the chest, except for Leontius. The anonymous saint on the chest has the same appearance as Saint Jacob, both holding an oval shield, as in the paintings. We could therefore conclude that for an unknown reason Jacob’s name was never added to the chest, but that his relic may have been kept inside.

Fig. 66 © Claremont Graduate University 55 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 5. Paintings on Layer 4 In the first half of the thirteenth century the church was modified in its architecture, replastered on the inside, and redecorated within a relatively short period. Instead of the wall paintings that had been gradually added over the period from the seventh to the tenth century, the paintings were now apparently composed as a coherent iconographical program, in which several themes from previous centuries were repeated, sometimes in slightly different positions. Only part of this iconographical program can be reconstructed now, since in the eighteenth century, during the final great renovation of the building, most of the thirteenth-century plaster was removed. 5.1. The semi-domes After the rebuilding of the haykal in the tenth century the original eastern apse with the Ascension disappeared, reducing the original Christological/Mariological sequence in the four semi-domes to three scenes. Where originally the sequence consisted of Annunciation (west), Epiphany (north), Ascension (east), and probably Pentecost in the southern semi-dome, it was replaced by scenes of Annunciation and Nativity in the southern semi-dome, the Ascension (formerly in the west), and the Dormition of the Virgin (formerly in the northern semi-dome). 5.1.1.

The southern semi-dome The layout of the paintings in the southern semi-dome has a remarkable but slightly awkward character, with a division running down the middle (Fig. 66). On the left is the Annunciation with the archangel Gabriel, standing on the right, addressing the Virgin, who stands under a canopy. The right part of the semi-dome has a representation of the Nativity, with the Virgin lying on a red mattress and the manger behind her, surrounded by Joseph, the shepherds, and the Magi as diminutive figures.8 Fig. 67 © Claremont Graduate University 56 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 5.1.2. The western semi-dome The third scene in the sequence of the life of the Virgin was the Ascension, where she was depicted in a central position, surrounded by the twelve apostles, and in the upper part of the composition, Christ lifted by two angels (Fig. 67). This painting was severely damaged by fire in 1988, and in 1991 it was taken down to reveal the eighth-century Annunciation underneath (see 3.3.1.). The Ascension painting has been transferred to the monastery museum. 5.1.3. The northern semi-dome The thirteenth-century cycle of the life of the Virgin ended with the Dormition in the northern semi-dome (Fig. 68). The masonry of this dome was in bad condition and the superimposed layers of painted plaster started to detach. It was therefore necessary to separate the two painting layers.

The Dormition was mounted on a new support and transferred to the museum in 2006. The Epiphany that appeared underneath (3.3.2) was restored in the following years. Fig. 68 5.2. Paintings in the nave As in the paintings of the eighth to the tenth centuries that contained a cycle of scenes from the life of Christ, with a certain stress on the person of the Virgin, the thirteenth-century iconographical program had additional narrative scenes apart from the four scenes in the semi-domes. Almost nothing remains of this layer on the upper walls of the nave, and we can only speculate about most of the now missing scenes. Three of them, however, can be identified with a great deal of certainty.

© Claremont Graduate University 57 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 5.2.1. The eastern wall Of the complete redecoration of the eastern wall, very little remains. The two pairs of attached columns were connected by walls, so that two flat surfaces were created on which paintings were made. The two niches in the upper wall were walled up, so that here a large flat surface was also available for decoration. On either side of the entrance to the khurus a stucco console was made, in the shape of a cherub supporting a quarter-circular surface (Fig. 69). 5.2.1.1. Jacob of Saruj Immediately to the right of the arch to the khurus the upper part of a figure of a cleric dressed in a red phelonion with a pattern of lozenge-shaped crosses is visible (Fig. 70). He wears a monastic hood and holds a book in his left hand. A Syriac inscription over his head says “Jacob the teacher,” an epitheton for jacob of saruj (451–521).

5.2.1.2. The Archangel Michael, Dorotheus, and Theopiste On the surface between the right pair of columns a large, winged figure in military dress on horseback draws attention. In front of and behind the horse are the small figures of a man and a woman, looking up at the rider (Fig. 71).

Only one story in Coptic tradition can be the source of inspiration for this painting: the legend of Dorotheus and Theopiste. This prosperous and pious couple with a special devotion to Saint Michael, for whose monthly celebration they donated generously, lost Fig. 69 Fig. 70 © Claremont Graduate University 58 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 their fortune. The archangel, in the guise of an officer, appeared to them and after being received as a guest, miraculously restored their wealth.9 5.2.1.3. Military saint On the left side of the wall, as a counterpart for Saint Michael, there was a painting of a figure on horseback of which almost nothing remains, apart from a hind leg of the horse and its head.

5.2.1.4. Deesis After the niches in the upper wall were blocked, a large composition was painted of which only fragments remain. The largest of these fragments shows the blue tunic and red pallium of a seated figure in the middle of the wall. He is seated on a cushion with a pattern of lozenges in blue on white. To the left of it Fig. 71 there are fragments of another, smaller figure, dressed in a blue tunic and a red robe. To the right there are vague traces of a figure in brownish garments (Fig. 72). To the far left there are fragments of three figures in brownish/reddish garments (Fig. 73). One hand is shown holding a scroll. The overall impression is that of a large Deesis composition, with the Virgin at the right hand of Christ and John the Baptist on his left side. The fragments of three figures could mean that the twelve apostles were also part Fig. 72 © Claremont Graduate University 59 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 of the composition. In the lower part two angels, flying with outstretched hands in a downward direction, are visible on the blocked niches (Fig. 74). If they belong to the same composition, it could mean that the Deesis was the upper part of a larger representation of the Last Judgment that covered the entire wall.

5.2.2. The western wall Fig. 73 At the far-left side of the western wall, over a now closed bay between a column and the corner pier, was the scene of the baptism of Christ.

Only the tops of the halos of John the Baptist (left) and Christ (right) remain, but the fact that the latter is slightly lower, and that there is a dove over it, seems enough evidence to identify the scene.

On the opposite side, at the far right on the same wall, is a scene in which a seated figure of Christ makes a gesture of speech to a woman sitting in front of him (Fig. 75). Behind her there are two figures facing the opposite way. Only Christ is identified by a Syriac inscription. An identification as the wedding of Cana is hypothetical but seems the most plausible option.

On the lower western wall, under the semi-dome that once contained the Ascension, there are fragments of a figure of Christ in the middle and two angels to the right, which means that there were probably two more angels to the left.

Fig. 74 © Claremont Graduate University 60 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 5.2.3. The northern wall The northern wall is almost bare today. Only over the easternmost bay have the thirteenth-century paintings been preserved. To the left of the arch is a fragment of a painting, most of which is covered by the eighteenth-century arch supporting the barrel vault over the nave (Fig. 76). A group of people is visible, turned toward the left. Over their heads is a Coptic inscription that reads pna ecouab, shorthand for “Holy Spirit.” It is obvious that this refers to Pentecost, and that the group of people are apostles. In the church of Dayr al-Fig. 75 Baramus, Pentecost is depicted in the same location. Right of the arch is a standing figure of a bearded man, dressed in a tunic and cape, making a pointing gesture to the left (Fig. 77). The Syriac text next to his head is a later graffito; his identity remains unclear. On the opposite side of the nave there must have been a similar figure, but the only trace of him is a shoe in the lower corner of the surface left of the arch.

5.2.4. The southern wall of the southern side-aisle 5.2.4.1. Monastic saints When the southern side-aisle was redecorated, the memory of Abbot Maqari was apparently not deemed important enough to keep his epitaph visible. All blocked windows in the southern aisle were walled up completely and a new iconographical program was realized. Only fragments, mainly the upper parts of some paintings, remain today. To the far left the theme of Saint Macarius and his cherub was repeated, but in a new context: that of the founding fathers of monasticism in scetis (Fig. 78).

To the right were the figures of saints maximus and domitius, of which only parts of their heads survive,10 and further to the right are three more monastic saints of which only a vague contour or parts of their heads remain and whose names have not been preserved.

Fig. 76 © Claremont Graduate University 61 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 77 Fig. 78 5.2.4.2. Three mounted saints and a standing figure There is a lacuna that may have contained two standing figures, and to the right of the painting of the three patriarchs on the previous layer, a fragment in which a figure on horseback turned © Claremont Graduate University 62 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 toward the right is visible (Fig.

79). Only part of the breast and back of the horse with a fragment of the horseman remain visible, but it is evident he was wearing a military costume, judging from the pteruges, the armor protecting his waist. Immediately to his right is a standing figure, depicted frontally and holding a cross. Right of this figure is a second soldier on horseback, also turned toward the right.

This horseman is facing a Fig. 79 third one who is almost symmetrically facing him. Since only a narrow strip of the composition has survived, there is no way to identify any of the persons. The only thing that can be said about this composition is that the riders are in military costume. It is most likely they are saints, but we cannot even speculate about their identity.

5.2.4.3. Scenes from the Book of Daniel The Three Men in the Fiery Furnace Further to the right is a large composition, depicting the story of the Three Hebrews in the Fiery Furnace, an episode from the book of Daniel (Fig. 80). Only the lower part of the composition is missing. The angel, dressed in white, is standing to the left, holding a staff in his outstretched Fig. 80 © Claremont Graduate University 63 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 arms, protecting the three men, who are facing him. All three are dressed in Persian costume of short tunics, trousers, a cloak, and a bonnet on the head. Their gestures are identical, holding their hands raised in front of them. Of the middle figure of the three men, only very vague contours have survived.

This must be due to a blocked window under the thirteenth-century plaster. It is possible that humidity permeated the plaster and then destroyed the painting. To the right of the three men and the angel is the small figure of King Nebuchadnezzar, seated on a throne under a canopy (Fig. 81). In front of him are three standing men. This part of the painting is again heavily damaged, so that the identification of these men remains uncertain.

The Prophets Daniel and Habakkuk In the far right of the eastern wall is a representation of the prophet Daniel, standing frontally. This painting has also almost Fig. 81 completely disappeared, due to humidity damage from a blocked window underneath.

At the right edge of the painting a fragment has survived that depicts an angel, lifting a man by his hair (Fig. 82). This must be the prophet Habakkuk, lifted by his hair and brought to Babylon by an angel in order to feed Daniel (Daniel 14:34–39).

5.2.5. The northern wall of the northern side-aisle The western part of this wall has hardly any preserved fragments. Roughly in the middle and further to the right are fragments of figures of which nothing more can be said.

Over the northern entrance is a relatively well-preserved painting of Saint Theodore on horseback, identified by a Syriac inscription (Fig. 83). Several saints are known by this name, and which one is meant here remains unspecified. He rides toward the right, dressed in a cuirass and a red cloak that billows up behind him. On his outstretched left arm is a round shield and in his right hand he holds a spear pointed diagonally upward.

In front of the horse is a small figure with hands raised as if in a gesture of supplication.

Fig. 82 © Claremont Graduate University 64 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 83 Fig. 84 Fig. 85 © Claremont Graduate University 65 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 5.2.6. The southern intrados of the second khurus At the inside of this arch between the nave and the southern side-aisle are two figures of saints facing each other. On the western side is a woman dressed in a red tunic and yellow maphorion with a red hand cross in her right hand (Fig. 84). On the eastern side is a young man in white tunic with elaborate decoration on its neck and shoulders and a red cape, also holding a hand cross (Fig. 85). The inscriptions identifying these saints have not survived, so we can only speculate about their identity. One possibility would be saints julitta and cyriacus. 5.2.7. The northern intrados of the second khurus In the intrados on the opposite side of the nave are two holy deacons (Figs. 86, 87). Both are dressed in white tunics with narrow sleeves over which they wear a sticharion with wide sleeves. They have an orarion over their left shoulders. In their right hands they hold censers and in the left incense boxes. Both have a white spot on top of their heads, which might be a kind of tonsure or a headcover. The one on the eastern side has a youthful face with just a few hairs on his chin, while the other has a short beard.

Fig. 86 Fig. 87 © Claremont Graduate University 66 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 5.2.8. Paintings on columns: Severus (?), Dioscorus, and an unknown figure On the easternmost column in the northern nave is a standing figure with a monk’s cap. The inscription next to the head is clear and readable: six letters in Greek: (ΔI)οcκ(O)ροc and an inscription in Syriac: dioscorus the patriarch (Fig. 88). He is depicted in the costume of a monk with the rank of a priest. No episcopal vestments can be recognized. He wears a phelonion covered with medallions, nine originally, of which six are still visible. Under the phelonion a red sticharion and an epitrachelion are visible. The epitrachelion is decorated with a rectangular field covered with circles with dots inside. The lower part of the painting is missing; here the eighteenth-century plaster is directly applied on the brick of the column. Fig. 89 On the northern face of the column the second figure is in a lesser state of preservation (Fig. 89). Apart from the vague contours of a standing figure in the dress of a monk, nothing can be distinguished.

On the easternmost column in the southern nave is a painting that shows a standing figure in a costume that has both monastic and liturgical elements. He wears a monastic hood (qalansuwa) in combination with a tunic, an epitrachelion and a phelonion, Fig. 88 © Claremont Graduate University 67 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 decorated with nine medallions containing portraits of Christ, two angels, and six saints, maybe apostles (Fig. 90). This remarkable outfit has a counterpart on the column on the opposite side of the nave, where the patriarch Dioscorus was represented. This could mean that the painting here also represents a patriarch, possibly patriarch Severus of Antioch, who also occurs as a counterpart to Dioscorus in the wooden doors between the khurus and the haykal.

6. Inscriptions Apart from wall paintings with their epigraphic texts, numerous inscriptions of various kinds have been uncovered on the walls of the Church of the Holy Virgin. There is the usual graffiti, but apart from these are several commemorative Syriac texts that shed light on the history of the monastery, its community, and its church.11 Following, a selection of three such texts is given.

6.1. Southern wall of the southern side-aisle Dipinto of Petros son of Ishaq Translation 1. In the strength [of] our Lord Jesus Christ the Son of the [li]ving God, [I] Petros son of I[s]haq monk from Mosul who arrived (?) [in] the monastery of the house of the Mother 5. of [G]od [which is] in [the desert] of Scetis on the second [ofthe week (?)] of the Fir[s]t Can[o]n in the year [th]ee hundred and twenty and [...] of the Arabs. C[hri]st our G[od] ...

[.].. all [..].. has dee[me]d me worthy 10. of this holy place of the h[oly] fathers, (He) who is [...] the Son of the liv[ing] Fig. 90 God, through the prayer of all the Egyptian fa[th]ers and through the pr[ayer] of the Mother of God and of this mise[rabl]e and lo[w] ... and of these brothers, © Claremont Graduate University 68 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 15. may He deem me worthy of the heaven[ly] kingdom; may he have mercy on me (?) a[s on the robber] who (is) on the right hand [..] the praye[r] of the Mother of G[od] all .[..] this [...]..[..].[.]...

all the .[...]. on account of the love of Christ [...] [o]n the w[ea]k (man) and the si[nn]er 20. and the miserable and the (one who is) stained with the filth (?) [of(?)] sin [mor]e (?) than all the [.]. on account of love pray for me and not [..]...

25. [..] this justice.

Right of the painting of the three patriarchs, and slightly overlapped by it (and therefore older), is a Bohairic inscription with a wisdom text (apophthegma) of which not all details are clear: […] is […]; humility is a gift of mercy; [the] shame is [a …]; silence is a martyrdom […]. [If one] humiliates you, do not get angry; if one honors you, do not get […].

Do not get angry and hard. The small rope […] small […]; if you double the rope, it reaches […] because he (it?) is wise.

This word … […] this weak sinner who has written this, Jacob […] … I beg everyone who will read this that he may remember [me], so that the Lord may forgive my sins.

Left of the painting of the Three Patriarchs:

Translation 1. “May the Lord have mer[cy] and pity on the da[y] of judgment over Moru[to] son of c[ … ], Takrita[n], 5. and over Popo his son. Amen.”

The Syriac epitaph of abbot Maqari Translation 1. (He) has departed from this life, me[age]r and afflicted and full of sorrows, to the place full of joy and many ble[ssi]ngs and delights, the deceased and worthy of a good remembrance, Mar Maqari, [Ta]kritan and cha[s]te abbot 5. of this holy convent. He journeyed to his Lord, God of the spirits and of a[ll] flesh, [on the d]ay of Sun[da]y of Pentecost, on the tenth of (the month) Iyar in the year one thousand and two [hu]ndred according to the Greeks. May Christ God, for [whose] holy name he left this world and endured abuses and op[pres]sion, and [car]ried 10. the holy yoke of monasticism [for the sake of the] tr[u]e prom[is]es of our Lord, when he said: “Take [my] yoke upon yourselves and I will give you relief,”

© Claremont Graduate University 69 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 may He give him in return hundredfold for his anguish.

May the Lord [abs]olve his sins and may He forgive his shortcomings and may He deem him worthy to arrive at the place of rest without fear. May He seat him 15. [in the] Abrahamite [b]osom. May He give him [rest] with scents of [bless]ing. May He give him joy in the tabernacles of light.

May He deem him worthy [to st]and with the lovely rank of the [el]ected and [ho]ly ones, and may he be counted [ ] Abba Maqari the Great and Abba Antoni[o]s; [may He give] him [joy] in the place of delights, with these crowds of ascetics.

20. [May] the Lord God [g]ive him a resplendent resurrection at the [enc]ounter with [Him] [on the d]ay of Judgment, when the [splendo]r of his Divinity will be revealed; and may He be reconciled with him with joy and in great confidence, through the intercession [and] the prayers of the Bearer of God, the Virgin Mary, and of the Great Abba [Ma]qa[ri] and of all the saints. A[men]. Let everyone who reads (this) pray for his soul, 25. [that] the Lord may [gi]ve him the [c]rown of life in His mercy, and for Yuhanon, his son, priest [ ] with him for forty years, and he to[ok up …] a[fter him] the yoke of the superiorship of this monastery. † 6.2. Eastern wall of the nave A calligraphy Next to the entrance to the khurus, at the left-hand side, there is an unusual calligraphy, consisting of a Syriac inscription with its mirror image attached to it (Fig. 91).

“Saintly Cyriacus, patriarch of Antioch”

Fig. 91 © Claremont Graduate University 70 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Commemorative text On the left side of the entrance from the nave into the khurus, a small part of the painting of Abba Joseph has been plastered over to create a surface for a commemorative inscription that was apparently important enough to be put in this conspicuous place. The dating is most probably to be read as 1155/6 CE. So far it is unclear as to what misfortunes and following restorations this text refers.

Translation 1. In the year one thousand and four hundred and s[even]ty and seven according to (the era) of the Greeks [...] to this monastery of [...

the abbot and [..]..[..]....[.] because they are (or: were) [.]. [...

..[...] of [...] hands (?) ... that which enters from these monasteries which (are) in Egy[pt .. and the monastery with all its belongings while it did not stop .[...] them [... 5. and not much according to the decision ..[..]...[...] fathers [...

which had remained ten years while there was no Syrian priest [...

[..].. and from beneath they were near to destruction without [...

[.] which is .[...]. with the patriarch in “bdn” the tow[n ...

[.] of Go[d] in the monastery while it was not able [...

10. ..[...]... according to the will of God and the pled[ge] of the pa[t]riarch [... which more ... inner part (?) of the house of the koinobion while they had worked hard [...] ... [...

[..]... but [..] ... or something which .[...] to the work [...

[..] and with the grace of God everything came to completion while [...] ...[...] strength [...] 6.3. Inscription of Mattay and Yaʿqub The northern wall of the nave, just east of the lateral entrance, has a number of inscriptions, many of them graffiti by visitors (Fig. 92). The place must have been attractive for such texts Fig. 92 © Claremont Graduate University 71 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 due to the presence of the relic-shrine of the church nearby, in the northeast corner of the nave. Among these inscriptions one is of particular importance since it commemorates reconstruction and restoration works in the monastery, commissioned by Mattay and Yaʿqub, two brothers from Tikrit (Van Rompay and Innemée 2023).

1. Remembrance of the Ri[ghteous] [ … ] praise and may their na[m]es be written [in the Boo]k of Life, for with the[m] and among the[m d]wells the Lor[d], and in the ran[k] of mess[engers] and p[riest]s among the mon[ks], 5. and [ … ] truthful leaders [ … ] wise [ … ] the hea[d]s of th[i]s holy pl[ac]e, A[b]raha[m] and [Yaw]sep, [t]ruth[ful] priests [of] Christ, the High Priest of truth, I say [ … … ] Ma[ttay] and Yaʿqub jo[i]ntly built and constructed th[is] monastery of the holy Bearer 10. of God [in the year one thousand and one hun]dred and thirty according to the Greeks in the days of our blesse[d] and God-clad patr[iarch]s [Mar Yaʿq]ub and Ma[r] Dionysios of Syr[ia …and] they completed [ … … … …] th[i]s place.

May God respo[nd (and) re]ward [th]em according to [the measure]e of the righteous[s] and let th]em e[nter] into the edif[ice not] made by hands. Yea and Amen and Amen.

7. The Chapel of the 49 Martyrs The Chapel of the 49 Martyrs is located directly north of the church.

It is a later addition, possibly constructed in the tenth century.

The eastern wall of the sanctuary contains three niches. The outer niches are surrounded by stucco decoration in a style that corresponds to the stucco in the sanctuary of the main church. The central niche has no stucco decoration. All three niches contain paintings, the central one even in two superimposed layers.

The central niche (dimensions 1.95 x 1.05 x 0.50 m) contains a representation of the enthroned Virgin Mary (Fig. 93).

She is seated on a throne and holds the Christ-child frontally before her on her lap. Above the throne, on either side of the head of the Virgin, are two roundels with half-figures of angels. This niche has been plastered and decorated at least twice. Before the eighteenth-century plaster was applied, both painted layers were heavily Fig. 93 © Claremont Graduate University 72 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 Fig. 94 Fig. 95 damaged in the middle. The damaged area looks as if the surface was hit with a large, blunt object. At the edges of this damaged area the remains of an older, underlying painting are visible. These remains, partially uncovered, show that the earlier painting represents a Virgin Platytera (holding Christ, surrounded by a circular frame, in front of her), flanked by two persons of whom the left may be a bishop or a hegumenos, judging from the fragments of clothing that are still visible.

Flanking the central niche are two smaller niches (1.45 x 0.60 x 0.08 m), both framed by stucco work in Fatimid style, most likely dating to the same period that the stucco in the haykal was made, the beginning of the tenth century. In each one there is a standing saint with a halo and a codex in the left hand. The right saint is identified as saint mark by a Syriac inscription (Fig.

94).

Fig. 96 © Claremont Graduate University 73 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 The painting of the saint in the left niche has been damaged to such an extent that the lower part of the figure has disappeared due to wearing of the paint (Fig. 95). Additionally, in parts of the face the paint has disappeared, revealing the underlying sketch of the face. Just as in the central niche, a deep hole in the lower part of the painting destroyed several layers of plaster. This hole shows a cross-section of three older layers of unpainted plaster, 10cm thick, between the masonry and the painted plaster.

Over the two lateral niches remains of paintings have been found. Over the left niche is the lower part of a standing figure in liturgical costume (Fig. 96). Judging from this costume it must be a bishop wearing a gray tunic, a red and yellow phelonion, and a white omophorion with a red decoration on it. There is no clue to the identity of this bishop since nothing remains of the upper part and no inscription survives.

8. Iconography, Painting Technique, and Authorship The paintings of Dayr al-Suryan give a rare opportunity to follow the development of Christian wall painting in a single church from the seventh through the thirteenth centuries. This development over a period of more than 600 years has several aspects: the iconography of the themes depicted, the system according to which paintings were arranged in the decorative program of the church interior, and the painting technique used in the consecutive phases. So far, several iconographical themes have been found in the paintings, especially those of Layer 3, for which there is no parallel elsewhere in Christian painting, which has raised questions concerning the (Syriac) sources of inspiration for these paintings.

Concerning the iconographical program of the paintings, several observations have been made so far, for instance the fact that the Epiphany painting is located in the northeastern area of the church, a place traditionally associated with the baking and preparation of the bread for communion. The composition of the painting is probably based on the apse of the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, itself a toponym which literally means “house of bread.” There are other elements in the iconographical program that seem to have topographical symbolism, such as the conversion scenes on the upper parts of the walls of the khurus, but complete analysis will only be possible after all wall paintings still hidden under plaster are uncovered. The paintings were all executed on a dry layer of plaster, and the term “fresco” should therefore be avoided. The first layer of paintings (Layer 1), mostly consisting of geometrical and simple decorative patterns, was done in tempera technique and relatively cheap pigments such as red and yellow ochre. Layer 2 was made for the most part in the eighth century and here most of the paintings were done in encaustic technique. This is surprising, since the encaustic technique, in which pigments are mixed with molten beeswax as a medium, was generally believed to have been forgotten in the seventh century (Innemée 2006).

Although here more physical analysis will be needed, it can already be established that it must have been the so-called Punic wax method used here. In this variation of the encaustic technique, the melting point of the paint is lowered by mixing the wax with soap and natron, an ingredient which is available in large quantities in Wadi al-Natrun (Freccero 2002: 87). This technique allows paint to be applied with brushes instead of heated spatulas. In some of the paintings the brushstrokes are clearly recognizable, while in other cases brush hairs were found in paintings. The fact that so many of the Layer 2 paintings were done in the encaustic technique is proof that this way of painting was still in use in the eighth century, but apart from this a number of different hands can be distinguished in the style and technique of painting, showing that apparently it was not practiced by just a few masters, but by multiple painters throughout the century. The paintings from the ninth century and later were done in tempera with just a few touches of encaustic for the color green. While the eighth-century paintings were probably done by Egyptian masters, it is still an open question as to who was responsible for later © Claremont Graduate University 74 K. Innemée, Dayr al-Suryan: 2023 Update of New Discoveries 15 August 2023 paintings made after the establishment of the Syriac community at the monastery.

In some cases, the iconography betrays typically Syrian influences, which may be taken as an indication that Syrian painters were at work here, but more research is needed to say anything with certainty.